Water - H2O
Water or H2O, is a
liquid necessary for the
life of most
animals and
plants.
Water is a
binary compound that occurs at
room temperature as a clear
colorless odorless tasteless liquid. Water freezes into
ice below zero
degrees centigrade or 32ºF and
boils
above 100 degrees centigrade or 212ºF. Water is widely used as a
solvent. 71 percent of the
earth's surface is covered with
water, such as rivers, lakes and
oceans.
The
human body is 60% water. There are 3
atoms in a water
molecule, 2
hydrogen
atoms (H), and 1
oxygen Atom (O).
Water
Facts.
97.5% of all
water on earth is
salt water. Only 2.5% is fresh water,
and less then 1% is
drinkable water.
70% of
fresh water is frozen in the
icecaps.
Fluid Mechanics -
Evaporation -
Rain
-
Ice -
Crystals
Filters -
Water Purification -
Hydration
-
Dehydration
Testing -
Monitoring -
Quality of Water -
Drought -
Farming -
Eyes in the Sky -
Hibernation Pesticides
-
Poisons -
Water Pollution -
Body Burden
2
Billion People Worldwide lack access to
clean and
safe drinking
water.
Water Scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the
standard water demand. Water scarcity can also be caused by
droughts, lack of rainfall,
over developed areas or
pollution. In 2019 the World Economic Forum listed water scarcity as one
of the largest global risks in terms of potential impact over the next
decade. It is manifested by partial or no satisfaction of expressed
demand, economic competition for water quantity or quality, disputes
between users,
irreversible depletion of groundwater,
and negative impacts on the environment. Two-thirds of the global
population (
4 billion people) live under
conditions of severe water scarcity at least 1 month of the year. Half a
billion people in the world face severe water scarcity all year round.
Half of the world's largest cities experience water scarcity. A mere
0.014% of all water on Earth is both fresh
and easily accessible. Of the remaining water, 97% is saline and a little
less than 3% is difficult to access.
Global fresh water demand will outstrip supply by 40% by 2030, say
experts.
UN 2023 Water Conference.
The risk of global water scarcity is greater when accounting for the
origin of rain. Results indicate higher risks to water supply than
previously expected if accounting for the environmental conditions and
governability where rain is produced. The common idea of global water
supply is rain falling on the earth's surface and then stored in aquifers,
lakes, and rivers. The study examined 379 hydrological basins worldwide,
revealing that risks to water security are significantly higher when
considering the upwind origin of water.
The Average American uses 99 Gallons
of Water a Day for activities like
washing clothes,
bathing, toilet-flushing and cooking. Then on top of
that
the average American uses
another
250 gallons of
water per day to generate
daily electricity usage, =
350 gallons.
Water
Efficiency in Rural Areas is Getting Worse, Even as it Improves in Urban
Centers.
Drought Monitor -
Water Resources in the U.S. -
Wells -
Aquifers
Sustainable Groundwater Management Act is a three-bill package that
passed the California state legislature and was signed into California
state law by Governor Jerry Brown in September 2014. Its purpose is to
ensure better local and regional management of groundwater use and it
seeks to have a sustainable groundwater management in California by 2042.
It emphasizes local management and formed groundwater sustainability
agencies (GSAs) from local and regional authorities. Proposition 1
provides $100 million to financially support sustainable groundwater
management as well as cleanup and storage.
The historic passage of SGMA in 2014 set forth a statewide framework
to help protect groundwater resources over the long-term.
Water Curtailment Order is a requirement to
reduce water use due to a water shortage. When that evaluation shows there
is not enough water to support all the known needs in a watershed, the
State Water Board can send water right holders an order that prohibits
water use. These orders are called Curtailment Orders.
Idaho farmers say water curtailment order will dry up land, push them
out of business. Idaho Department of Water Resources issued May 27 order
that could
dry up 500,000 acres of Idaho farmland.
One farmer said that the crops are already in the ground and that he has
already invested in seed, fertilizer and other inputs that total $400 per
acre.
2020 US rule dramatically deregulated wetlands, streams and drinking water.
Machine learning reveals which streams and wetlands are protected -- or
not -- by changing Clean Water Act regulations. New research used machine
learning to more accurately predict which waterways are protected by the
Clean Water Act. The analysis found that a 2020 Trump administration rule
removed Clean Water Act protection for one-fourth of US wetlands and
one-fifth of US streams, and also deregulated 30% of watersheds that
supply drinking water to household taps.
Global Ethnohydrology Study examines the range of variation in local
ecological knowledge of water issues, also known as
ethnohydrology.
Action for Water Equity.
Water insecurity is a major problem in the United States, where more than
2 million people lack clean, consistent, and reliable access to water.
Sectoral contributions to surface water stress in the coterminous United
States.
Surface Water and Ocean Topography or
SWOT
is a s
atellite
altimeter with the mission are to make the first global survey of the
Earth's surface water, to observe the fine details of the ocean surface
topography, and to measure how terrestrial surface water bodies change
over time. While past
satellite missions
like the
Jason series altimeters (TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, Jason-2, Jason-3)
have provided variation in river and lake water surface elevations at
select locations, SWOT will provide the first truly global observations of
changing water levels, stream slopes, and inundation extents in rivers,
lakes, and floodplains. In the world's oceans, SWOT will observe ocean
circulation at unprecedented scales of 15–25 km (9.3–15.5 mi),
approximately an order of magnitude finer than current satellites. Because
it uses wide-swath altimetry technology, SWOT will almost completely
observe the world's oceans and freshwater bodies with repeated
high-resolution elevation measurements, allowing observations of
variations.
News Deeply environmental, social and economic issues contributing to
the drought crisis in California.
Climate Change -
Global
Change -
FilmsDry Land Farming -
Irrigation -
Hibernation
Desalination -
Water from
Air -
Boiling Water
Public Water -
Aquifers -
Reservoirs -
Wells
Water Use Tips -
Conservation Methods -
Run offSince there are no federal
regulations either guaranteeing a
citizen’s right to water or water
affordability,
water and sewer prices more than doubled between 2000 to
2016, outpacing price increases for other
basics such as electricity.
Water Right in water law refers to the right of a user to use water
from a water source, e.g., a river, stream, pond or source of groundwater.
In areas with plentiful water and few users, such systems are generally
not complicated or contentious. In other areas, especially arid areas
where irrigation is practiced, such systems are often the source of
conflict, both legal and physical. Some systems treat surface water and
ground water in the same manner, while others use different principles for
each.
Water Resources Law is the field of law dealing with the ownership,
control, and use of water as a resource. It is most closely related to
property law, and is distinct from laws governing water quality.
Privatization -
Monopolies -
Middlemen
Human Right to Water and Sanitation is a principle that acknowledges
that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's
life. It was recognized as a
human right by
the
United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010, through
Resolution
64/292, the
United Nations General Assembly explicitly recognized the human right
to water and sanitation and acknowledged that clean drinking water and
sanitation are
essential to the realization of all human rights. The Resolution calls
upon States and
international organizations to provide financial resources, help
capacity-building and technology transfer to help countries, in particular
developing countries, to provide safe, clean, accessible and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all.
Clean Water Rights
Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States
governing
water pollution. Its objective is to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters by
preventing point and nonpoint pollution sources, providing assistance to
publicly owned treatment works for the improvement of wastewater
treatment, and maintaining the integrity of wetlands.
Heavy Metals -
Pesticides -
Toxins -
Dysentery -
Leaded Gasoline -
Pollution -
Human Rights
More than 2 billion people lack access to safe water, and more than
4.5 billion people lack adequate
sanitation services.
Gov. Dannel P. Malloy Designated Connecticut’s Water Resources as a Public
Trust - Friday, June 15, 2018.
2023 -
The Supreme Court removes federal protections for most of the country's
wetlands. This means communities across the U.S. are now more
vulnerable to pollution and flooding. Streams and wetlands are not only
important sources of drinking water, they are buffers against extreme
storms and floodwaters. This rule spells out how the Sackett decision has
undermined our ability to prevent the destruction of our nation's
wetlands, which protect drinking water, absorb floods and provide habitat
for wildlife. Congress needs to step up to protect the water we drink, our
wildlife, and our way of life. A 2006
Supreme Court decision
determined that wetlands would be protected if they had a "significant
nexus" to major waterways.
Method to find toxic chemicals in drinking water.
Chlorination generates hundreds of unregulated toxic byproducts in
water. Among disinfection byproducts,
only 11
compounds are currently regulated in drinking water, according to
his paper published in the
Royal Society of Chemistry journal Environmental Science.
Poison
Papers. Documenting the Hidden History of Chemical and Pesticide
Hazards in the United States.
Safe Drinking Water Act
is the principal federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe
drinking water for the public.
Drinking Water Violations (2024) -
Drinking Water Violations by State.
Over 1 Million American Rural Residents Don't Have Clean
Water.
An Analysis of Water Collection Labor among Women and Children in 24
Sub-Saharan African Countries. An estimated 13.54 million women (and
3.36 million children) who are responsible for water collection trips that
take 30 minutes or longer.
Something In
The Water Festival.
Lead in America's Water Systems is a National Problem. It has been
four years since the story of lead-contaminated water in Flint, Michigan,
first riveted the country. Meanwhile, a 2016 CNN report found that more
than 5,000 U.S. water systems serving roughly 18 million people violated
EPA rules for lead in water.
800 million children still exposed to lead.
Unsafe lead levels in school drinking water: new study IDs building
risk factors. Half of faucets in MA schools built in the 1960s and 70s
could be a source of elevated lead levels. There is no safe exposure level
to lead.
Concentrations of Antibiotics found in some of the world's rivers exceed
'safe' levels by up to 300 times, the first ever global study has
discovered.
Community
Water Center -
Resource Conservation Recovery Act (wiki)
Identifying schools with high lead levels in drinking water. Consuming
lead can cause health problems for anyone, but children are particularly
vulnerable because the element can interfere with their growth and
development. While water systems will soon be required to measure lead
levels in school tap water, it's not clear how these measurements should
be interpreted. Researchers have now used real-world data to determine an
approach for identifying schools likely to have problematic lead levels.
Lead from gasoline blunted the IQ of about half the U.S. population,
study says, especially for people born before 1996, which was the year the
U.S. banned gas containing lead. Lead is a neurotoxin, and
no amount of lead is safe. Currently, 3.5
micrograms per deciliter is the reference value for blood lead levels to
be considered high; the acceptable amount was once higher.
An estimated 5.455 million adults worldwide died in 2019 from
cardiovascular disease attributable to lead exposure — a toll more
than six times higher than a previous estimate.
Economic Costs of Childhood Lead Exposure in Low- and Middle-Income
Countries
For 2019 alone, the study puts the
combined toll of cognitive damage and CVD mortality at $6 trillion,
which is based on projected loss of future income and an economic measure
known as
value of statistical life, with the
greatest burden falling on low- and middle-income countries.
World
Health Organization's list of
10 chemicals of major public health concern. Arsenic, Asbestos,
Benzene, Cadmium, Fioxions, Fluoride, Lead, Mercury, Pesticides, Air
Pollution
Superfund Act
is a program designed to fund the cleanup of sites contaminated with
hazardous substances and pollutants.
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act purpose is to encourage and
support emergency planning efforts at the state and local levels and to
provide the public and local governments with information concerning
potential chemical hazards present in their communities.
Drugs in Public Drinking Water
Nearly 200 million Americans across all 50 states are exposed to unsafe
levels of chromium-6 or hexavalent chromium, a heavy metal known to
cause cancer in animals and humans.
Arsenic-contaminated water associated with antibiotic resistance in
children, study finds. In rural Bangladesh, areas with high levels of
arsenic contamination in drinking water, compared to areas with less
contamination, have a higher prevalence of antibiotic-resistant
Escherichia coli in both water and child stool samples, according to a new
study.
7 questions to ask your elected officials about tap water. What’s in
my tap water? Why are these contaminants in my water? How does our water
system remove contaminants? How are you investing in better water
treatment technology to improve water quality? What are you doing to
create sustainable funding for our water systems? How are you protecting
our source water to keep pollution from getting into water in the first
place? How are you making sure that good, clean water remains affordable
for all residents?
Michigan Mayor Declares State Of Emergency Over Lead
Levels. (trail of disaster)
Mass Murderers are at it again. We have
too many
criminals in our local city governments. We need
environmental justice now!
HERE'S TO FLINT 2016 (youtube 44:54) -
Financial Emergency in Michigan (wiki) -
Receivership (wiki) -
Elevated Levels of Lead in Children
from Flint, Mich. -
S.2377 - Lead-Free Drinking Water Act of 2004 -
CDC Lead
Additives may amplify the
risk of pathogen release into drinking water. Many city drinking water
systems add
softening agents to keep plumbing free of
pipe-clogging mineral buildup. According to new research, these additives
may amplify the risk of
pathogen release into drinking water by weakening the grip that
bacteria -- like those responsible for Legionnaires' disease -- have on
pipe interiors.
Today at least
4
million households have children living in them that are being exposed to
high levels of lead. Almost 3,000 areas with poisoning rates far
higher than in the tainted Michigan city. Yet many of these lead hotspots
are receiving little attention or funding.
Diets High in Iron, calcium or vitamin C can limit the
absorption of
Lead in your Body and promote its
excretion.
Our National Lead Problem Is Bigger Than Flint
America's lead poisoning problem isn't just in Flint.
It’s everywhere.
More than 5,000 water systems across the country are
violating rules meant to keep lead out of drinking water,
NRDC.
Nationally, nearly 1,400 water systems serving 3.7
million Americans violated the federal standard at least
once over that time period. The information was based on
data current as of September 2015.
Corrosion Inhibitor (wiki)
NYC’s Hudson River:
Clean Enough to Swim In? - Cheddar Explains (youtube) - Don't swim
after a heavy rain storm.
In Connecticut,
39 of 1,082 water systems serving schools, office
parks, a state office, and apartment and condominium
complexes have
exceeded federal lead levels at least
once since January 2013.
More
than 6 million Americans are drinking water laced with unsafe levels of
chemicals linked with cancer and other illnesses.
Prenatal
immunotoxicant exposure and postnatal autoimmune disease.
Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid.
Indigenous Americans Have Been Living Flint's Nightmare for Decades.
First Nations Water Crisis in Indigenous Communities.
Deficits in Psychologic and Classroom Performance of Children with
Elevated Dentine Lead Levels.
What Do Parents Need to Know to Protect Their Children? Prevent lead
exposure before it occurs.
$2.2 billion
over five years to Service Men Poisoned by Water. Veterans,
former reservists and former National Guard members who served for at
least 30 days at the U.S. Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in North Carolina
from 1953 to 1987,
up to 900,000
service members, were potentially exposed to the tainted water at the base.
They developed adult leukemia, aplastic anemia, bladder cancer, kidney
cancer, liver cancer, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and
Parkinson’s disease. Contaminants included the volatile organic compounds
trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, benzene and vinyl chloride.
Toxic Water Polluters List -
Toxic Water -
Polluters -
Pollution of Groundwater
"
No more Exemptions to the
Law"
Groundwater Pollution
can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfills,
effluent from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol stations
or from over application of fertilizers in agriculture.
Toxic carcinogen found in 80 of New Jersey water systems.
Legionnaires Disease comes from breathing in small water droplets or
mist contaminated with the
Legionella bacteria.
10
Biofilms in Drinking Water Distribution Systems: Significance and Control
-
Biofilm
(wiki)
5.2 million Americans learned that their drinking water
is contaminated with man-made Unsafe Levels of PFCs.
DuPont, despite knowledge that the chemical was linked
to increased rates of cancer and other horrific health
conditions in animals and human beings, had dumped
mountains of the stuff into the local water supply for
decades.
Mining.
Genx in
drinking water in Raleigh, N.C. A chemical company under fire for
releasing GenX into the Cape Fear River. GenX is a detergent used to make
Teflon and other products it is related to a family of chemicals known to
cause cancer and other Adverse health effects.
GenX is a
chemical process that uses 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)propanoic
acid (FRD-903) and produces FRD-902 and E1. The process is proposed as a
replacement for the use of
Toxic
and
Carcinogenic
PFOA (C8) for manufacturing fluoropolymers like teflon. Gen X was
released by DuPont into the Cape Fear River which feeds the Wilmington, NC
water supply for decades resulting in controversy over its adverse
health effects. On November 2, 2017, a federal lawsuit was filed by the
Brunswick County Government alleging that DuPont failed to disclose
research regarding potential risks from the chemical.
3.4 million people die each year
from water-related diseases.
Water Facts.
Risk of infection from water in the air at home from the transmitting
of bacterial disease via water spray from sinks, showers and toilets.
Body Burden
(toxins that build up in the body)
Turbidity is a measure of the
cloudiness of
water. It is used to indicate water quality and
filtration effectiveness (such as whether
disease-causing organisms are present). Turbidity is the cloudiness or
haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that
are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The
measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality. Higher turbidity
levels are often associated with higher levels of disease-causing
microorganisms such as viruses, parasites and some bacteria, the EPA
states. These organisms can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps,
diarrhea, and associated headaches.
Something in the water: Pollutant may be more hazardous than previously
thought. Perchlorate, a chemical compound used in rocket fuels and
other materials, may be a more hazardous pollutant than previously
thought, says a new study. Sometimes toxins, such as hazardous wastes and
industrial byproducts, seep into groundwater, the source of our drinking
water.
How a toxic chemical ended up in the
drinking water supply for 13M people. TRENTON — New Jersey’s
largest drinking water supplier discovered a toxic chemical in the river
where it gets water for hundreds of thousands of customers, setting off a
major search for polluters that led back to a Pennsylvania wastewater
treatment plant and a South Jersey company. The chemical New Jersey
American Water Co. found, 1,4-Dioxane, is a byproduct of plastic
manufacturing that is considered a likely carcinogen by the federal
government. While the chemical has been found in water supplies before,
this discovery in early 2020 set off alarms because of the high levels in
a section of the Delaware River close to American Water’s treatment plant
in South Jersey that sends drinking water to customers in Burlington,
Camden, Gloucester and Salem counties.
Organizations that
help Protect People and Protect Clean Water Rights
-
Water for People -
Agua 4 All -
The
Water Project -
The
Water Bearers -
Water
Integrity Network -
Water
Aid
-
The
UNICEF Tap Project -
Clean Water -
Charity Water -
Blue
Planet Run -
Safe Water -
Water.org
-
Water Credit -
Water Standard
-
Water Smart Innovations -
World Water Day (wiki) -
World Water Day -
World Water Day
2021: What does water mean to you? (youtube) -
World Water day
2019 (youtube).
Natural Resources Defense
Council helps defend our air, water, communities, and wild places and
has worked to ensure the rights of all people to clean air, clean water,
and healthy communities.
Earth Protectors - List of organizations that help protect the
environment.
National policy aimed at reducing U.S. greenhouse gases also would improve
water quality. A climate policy that raises the price of
carbon-intensive products across the entire U.S. economy would yield a
side benefit of reducing nitrate groundwater contamination throughout the
Mississippi River Basin. The Gulf of Mexico, an important U.S. fishery,
also would see modest benefits from the nitrate reductions.
Pollution.
Only 17 percent of free-flowing rivers are protected. New science
about the fate of freshwater ecosystems released today by the journal
Sustainability finds that only
17 percent of rivers globally are both free-flowing and within
protected areas, leaving many of these highly-threatened systems¬ -- and
the species that rely on them -- at risk.
Sewage Bacteria Lurking in Hudson River Sediments. Study finds levels
can greatly exceed those in water, with potential health risks. A new
study shows that fecal bacteria from sewage are living in far greater
quantities in near-shore sediments of the Hudson River than in the water
itself. The river's pollution levels are generally monitored based on
samples of clear water, not sediments, so the findings suggest that people
stirring up the bottom while wading, swimming or kayaking may face
previously unrecognized health risks.
Films about Water Pollution
Water
Tariff is a price assigned to water supplied by a public utility
through a piped network to its customers.
Cleveland's Water Rates more than Doubled – to $1,317 per year for an
average family of four. And families in Detroit paid an astounding $1,151
annually. The average family pays $70 a month for water.
The Value of Water
is raising awareness about the importance of water and the often invisible
water challenges threatening our country.
Washington State takes bold step to restrict companies from Bottling Local
Water. “Any use of water for the commercial production of bottled
water is deemed to be detrimental to the public welfare and the public
interest.” The move was hailed by water campaigners, who declared it a
breakthrough.
Commodification of Water refers to the process of transforming water,
especially freshwater, from a public good into a tradable commodity also
known as an economic good.
Sustainability.
Water Quality
Water Pollution is the
contamination of water bodies
(e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This form of
environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or
indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to
remove harmful compounds.
Water pollution affects the entire biosphere –
plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases
the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, but
also to the natural biological communities.
Neutrons probe oxygen-generating enzyme for a greener approach to clean
water.
Food
and Water Watch -
Public City
Water
Water Quality
refers to the
chemical, physical, biological, and radiological
characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water
relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any
human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of
standards against which compliance can be assessed. The most common
standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems,
safety of human contact, and drinking water.
Drugs in water.
Drinking Water is water that is
safe to drink or to
use for food preparation, without risk of health problems. Globally, in
2015, 91% of people had access to water suitable for drinking. Nearly 4.2
billion had access to tap water while another 2.4 billion had access to
wells or public taps. 1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking
water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in
infectious
Diarrhea such as
Cholera and typhoid among others. (
Potable Water).
Water Filtering (clean water types)
Tap
Water Quality Database Since 2010, water utilities' testing has found
pollutants in Americans' tap water, according to an EWG drinking water
quality analysis of 30 million state water records.
All 50 states in America have
polluted waters where fish are
unsafe to eat.
Bio-Assessment
Urban Aquaculture
City Fish Farmer
Urban Fish Farm (youtube)
River Protection
Water is Life (manual on amazon)
Recreational Water Quality Alerts
River Preservation Groups
Ocean Protection
Environmental Quotes and Sayings
Green Products
Fresh
Water is naturally occurring water on Earth's surface in ice sheets,
ice caps, glaciers, icebergs, bogs, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams, and
underground as groundwater in aquifers and underground streams. Fresh
water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved
salts and other total dissolved solids.
How Nestle Makes
Billions Bottling Free Water | Direct From With Dena Takruri - AJ+ (youtube)
- Michigan’s water for next to nothing and sells it at great profit. And
the state has just approved its request to pump even more, despite the
failed promise of jobs and 80,000 public comments against Nestle.
Water Testing
Water Testing is a broad description for various procedures used to
analyze water quality. Millions of water quality
tests are carried out daily to fulfill regulatory requirements and to
maintain safety.
Drinking Water Test Kit
(amazon)
Handheld TDS Meter
(amazon)
TDS-EZ Water Quality
Tester (amazon)
City Drinking Water Test Kits
Water Test Kits
Water Test America
Tox-Spot Water Toxicity Test
Special
Pathogens Lab
Water Canary
Low Cost inkjet Printed Nano
A pill with pesticide-detecting enzymes.
Pullulan is used in various breath freshener or oral hygiene products.
Tap Score
is independent laboratory water testing for hundreds of contaminants
from the comfort of home.
EWG Tap Water
Database. Know what's in your water?
Pesticides (Bio-Monitoring)
Simple Paper-Strip Testing has the potential to tell us quickly what's
in water, and other liquid samples from food, the environment and bodies
-- Now researchers have developed a way to make these low-cost devices
more versatile and reliable for analyzing both liquid and solid samples
using adhesive tape.
Paper Sensors
-
Soil Testing
-
Food Testing
Paper-Based Device that cost one dollar and weighs a gram can be a simple
way of testing water for contamination. The device consists of a
microbial fuel cell (MFC), obtained by screen printing biodegradable
carbon electrodes onto a single piece of paper. When these bacteria are
exposed to polluted water, a change in the electric signal occurs, which
can be used as a warning message that the water is unsafe to drink. An MFC
is a device that uses the natural biological processes of 'electric'
bacteria - attached to the carbon electrodes - to generate an electric
signal and the sensor can be linked up with an electronic device such as a
mobile phone, via a wireless transmitter, for a quick and user-friendly
way of identifying if a water supply is safe to use.
Tiny magnetic beads produce an optical signal that could be used to
quickly detect pathogens. The findings point to faster way to detect
bacteria in food, water, and clinical samples.
Smartphone System to test for Lead in Water. Unlike most commercially
available tests, it can detect levels below EPA standards.
Smartphone-Based Paper Microfluidic Particulometry of Norovirus from
Environmental Water Samples at the Single Copy Level. Human enteric
viruses can be highly infectious and thus capable of causing disease upon
ingestion of low doses ranging from 100to 102virions.Norovirus is a good
example with a minimum infectious dose as low as a few tens of virions,
that is, below femto-gram scale. Norovirus detection from
commonly implicated environmental matrices (water and food) involves
complicated concentration of viruses and/or amplification of the noro-virus
genome, thus rendering detection approaches not feasible forfield
applications. In this work, noro-virus detection was performed on a
microfluidic paper analytic device without using any sample concentration
or nucleic acid amplification steps by directly imaging and counting
on-paper aggregation of antibody-conjugated, fluorescent submicron
particles. An in-house developed
smartphone-based fluorescence microscope
and an image-processing algorithm isolated the particles aggregated by
antibody-antigen binding, leading to an extremely low limit of norovirus detection, as low as 1 genome copy/µL in deionized water and 10
geno-mecopies/µL in reclaimed wastewater.
Water Filtering - Purification of Water
Water Purification is the process of
removing
undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids and
gases from water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose.
Most water is disinfected for
human consumption (
drinking
water), but water purification may also be designed for a variety of
other purposes, including fulfilling the requirements of medical,
pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. The methods used
include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and
distillation; biological processes such as slow sand filters or
biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and
chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet
light. Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi,
as well as reducing the concentration of a range of dissolved and
particulate matter.
Water
Filter removes impurities by lowering contamination of water using a
fine physical barrier, a chemical process, or a biological process.
Filters cleanse water to different extents for purposes such as providing
agricultural irrigation, accessible drinking water, public and private
aquaria, and the safe use of ponds and swimming pools.
Information Filter.
Media
Filter is a type of filter that uses a bed of sand, peat, shredded
tires, foam, crushed glass, geo-textile fabric, anthracite, crushed
granite or other material to filter water for drinking, swimming pools,
aquaculture, irrigation, stormwater management, oil & gas operations, and
other applications.
Desalination -
Membranes -
City Water
Slow Sand Filter are used in water purification for treating raw water
to produce a potable product. They are typically 1 to 2 metres deep, can
be rectangular or cylindrical in cross section and are used primarily to
treat surface water. The length and breadth of the tanks are determined by
the flow rate desired by the filters, which typically have a loading rate
of 200 to 400 litres per hour per square metre (or 0.2 to 0.4 cubic metres
per square metre per hour).
Filtration
is the process whereby fluids pass through a filter or a filtering medium
that helps filter out impurities and toxins from the water to improve the
water quality. There are basically 3 different types of filter medium:
Mechanical, Biological and Chemical.
Biofilter is a pollution control technique using a bioreactor
containing living material to capture and biologically degrade pollutants.
Common uses include processing waste water, capturing harmful chemicals or
silt from surface runoff, and microbiotic oxidation of contaminants in air.
Biosand Filter is a point-of-use water treatment
system adapted from traditional slow sand filters. Biosand filters remove
pathogens and suspended solids from water using biological and physical
processes that take place in a sand column covered with a biofilm. BSFs
have been shown to remove heavy metals, turbidity, bacteria, viruses and
protozoa. BSFs also reduce discoloration, odor and unpleasant taste.
Studies have shown a correlation between use of BSFs and a decrease in
occurrence of diarrhea. Because of their effectiveness, ease of use, and
lack of recurring costs, biosand filters are often considered appropriate
technology in developing countries. It is estimated that over 200,000 BSFs
are in use worldwide.
Sand.
Biochar and Ultrasound Cleans Water. Scientists have developed a
wastewater treatment process that uses a common agricultural byproduct to
effectively remove pollutants and environmental hormones, which are known
to be
endocrine disruptors.
Charcoal.
Activated Carbon is a form of
carbon processed to have small,
low-volume pores that increase the surface area available for adsorption
or chemical reactions. Activated is sometimes substituted with active. Due
to its high degree of microporosity, one gram of activated carbon has a
surface area in excess of 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) as determined by gas
adsorption. An activation level sufficient for useful application may be
obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often
enhances adsorption properties. Activated carbon is usually derived from
charcoal. When derived from coal it is referred to as activated coal.
Activated coke is derived from coke.
Gravel -
Pebbles.
Gravel and sand remove large and small particles, carbon removes
pesticides, chlorine and other chemicals and improves the taste of water.
New Method for Removing Lead from Drinking Water. Engineers have
designed a relatively low-cost, energy-efficient approach to treating
water contaminated with heavy metals. initially developed for desalination
of seawater or brackish water, and later adapted for removing radioactive
compounds from the cooling water of nuclear power plants. The new version
is the first such method that might be applicable for treating household
water supplies, as well as industrial uses. The new approach uses a
process called shock electrodialysis, in which an electric field is used
to produce a shockwave inside an electrically charged porous material
carrying the contaminated water. The shock wave propagates from one side
to the other as the voltage increases, leaving behind a zone where the
metal ions are depleted, and separating the feed stream into a brine and a
fresh stream. The process results in a 95 percent reduction of lead from
the outgoing fresh stream.
CSU environmental engineers developing tool to sustainably clean water
using microbes. Treated wastewater can contain very small amounts of
pollutants that are not entirely removed through standard treatment
methods and could end up in our drinking water. Colorado State University
scientists are creating a new molecular tool to identify bacteria that
could be key to cleaning our water and protecting human and ecosystem
health.
Could used beer yeast be the solution to heavy metal contamination in
water? A study shows that yeast, an abundant waste product from
breweries, can filter out even trace amounts of lead. A new study finds
inactive yeast could be effective as an inexpensive, abundant, and simple
material for removing lead contamination from drinking water supplies. The
approach should be efficient and economic, even down to part-per-billion
levels of contamination.
Researchers Remove Harmful Hormones from Las Vegas wastewater using Green
Algae. A common species of freshwater
green algae is capable
of removing certain
endocrine disrupting chemicals
from wastewater, according to new research. Researchers explored the
potential for use of a species of freshwater green algae called
Nannochloris to remove EDCs from treated wastewater.
A new design improves water decontamination via plasma jet. Two
research groups design a plasma (an ionized gas) reactor maintained by
microwaves that makes it possible to decontaminate waters with high
concentrations of dye. The
FQM-136 Physics of Plasmas and FQM-346 Organic Catalysis and
Nanostructured Materials groups at the University of Cordoba collaborated
on a research study whose purpose was the elimination of contaminants
present in water by applying plasma to promote chemical processes. Plasma
is an ionized gas -- that is, a gas containing electrons, ions, atoms,
molecules, radicals, and photons. It is often called the fourth state of
matter and, surprisingly, it permeates everything. Plasmas, which are
artificially generated by transmitting energy to a gas, are found in the
fluorescent tubes that light kitchens, but they have also allowed mobiles
to become smaller and smaller.
Portable Water Filters
Water Filter Kit and Faucet (amazon)
Brita Water Filter Pitcher (amazon)
Perfect Water Purifier
ZeroWater ZD-013 8-Cup Pitcher
(amazon)
Propur
Water Filter Pitcher
(amazon)
Waves for Water Portable Filtration Systems.
Life Saver Water Bottle Filter Systems
Wateroam Fieldtrate Lite
LifeStraw Personal Water Filter
(amazon)
Katadyn Survivor 06 Desalinator
(amazon)
Katadyn Pocket an output of 1 liter/minute through our
silver-impregnated ceramic filter.
Berkey Water
Filters
SolarSack Water Purification is a special bag that is filled with four
liters of water and placed in the sun for four hours. Using UVA and UVB
rays, as well as heat from the sun, the water is cleaned of pathogenic
bacteria. The user can then drink the water and reuse the bag for water
purification.
Solar Pure Water -
Desalination (salt water)
Removing Heavy Metals from Water in a matter of Seconds. Chemists have
developed a new material that can remove heavy metals from water and make
it drinkable in second.
Solar Still
distills water, using the
heat of the Sun to
evaporate, cool then collect the water. There are many types of solar
still, including large scale concentrated solar stills, and condensation
traps (better known as moisture traps amongst survivalists). In a solar
still, impure water is contained outside the collector, where it is
evaporated by sunlight shining through clear plastic or glass. The pure
water vapor condenses on the cool inside surface and drips down, where it
is collected and removed. Distillation replicates the way nature makes
rain. The sun's energy heats water to the point of
evaporation. As the
water evaporates, water vapor rises, condensing into water again as it
cools and can then be collected. This process leaves behind impurities,
such as salts and heavy metals, and eliminates microbiological organisms.
The end result is pure distilled water.
The Solar Still Water Purification Kit (amazon)
Researchers propose new structures to harvest untapped source of
freshwater. An almost limitless supply of fresh water exists in the
form of water vapor above Earth's oceans, yet remains untapped,
researchers said. A new study suggests an investment in new infrastructure
capable of
harvesting oceanic water vapor
as a solution to limited supplies of fresh water in various locations
around the world.
Ultraviolet Water Purification is the
most effective method for disinfecting bacteria from the water.
Ultraviolet (UV) rays penetrate harmful
pathogens in your home's water and destroy illness-causing microorganisms
by attacking their genetic core (DNA).
UMD Researchers Work to Mitigate Water Scarcity Crisis with Solar-Powered
Devices Made of Wood. Water can be transported through wood, purifying
it for safe use.
To accurately taste water, water should be
at room temperature, not chilled.
Amazon water Sanitation Hygiene Project
Moss Funaria Hygrometrica tolerates and absorbs an impressive amount of
lead (Pb) from water which would be a green alternative for
decontaminating polluted water and
soil.
Quest Water Solutions
Dean Kamen (youtube)
Jerry Can Produces Potable Water
Reverse Osmosis is a water purification technology
that uses a semipermeable membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger
particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is
used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property, that is driven
by chemical potential differences of the solvent, a thermodynamic
parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and
suspended species from water, including bacteria, and is used in both
industrial processes and the production of potable water.
5 Stage Reverse Osmosis Water Filter (amazon).
Osmosis in biology and chemistry is the
diffusion of molecules through a
semipermeable
membrane from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower
concentration until the concentration on both sides is equal.
Desalination -
Water from
Air
Puralytics
-
Ozonated Water -
Ozonator Purifier (amazon)
Water Ionizer
is an home appliance which claims to
raise the pH of drinking water by
using
electrolysis to separate the incoming water stream into acidic and
alkaline components. Proponents claim that consumption of the alkaline
stream results in a variety of health benefits, making it similar to the
alternative health practice of alkaline diets. Such claims are not
accepted in chemistry, physiology, and evidence-based medicine.
Alkaviva -
Ionizers -
Make Alkaline Water (wiki-how).
Researchers shed (laser) light on emerging water treatment technique.
Assuring that a growing global population has access to clean water will
require new water treatment methods. One of these next-generation methods
involves a form of iron called ferrate, which creates fewer toxic
byproducts than chemicals like chlorine and is potentially cheaper and
easier to deploy than complex ozone treatment systems. For ferrate to work
best, however, it needs to be combined with other compounds or excited by
light energy. Now, using a technique involving ultra-fast laser and X-ray
pulses, a team of researchers has revealed new details about the chemical
reaction that occurs when ferrate is exposed to visible and ultraviolet
light.
Liquid Metal Discovery to make Toxic Water Safe and Drinkable.
Researchers have discovered a revolutionary and cheap way to make filters
that can turn water contaminated with heavy metals into safe drinking
water in a matter of minutes. Nano-filters made of aluminium oxide could
be cheaply produced using virtually no energy from a fixed amount of
liquid metal Gallium.
Gallium
is a chemical element with symbol Ga and atomic number 31. It is in group
13 of the
periodic table, and thus
has similarities to the other metals of the group, aluminium, indium, and
thallium. Gallium does not occur as a free element in nature, but as
gallium(III) compounds in trace amounts in zinc ores and in bauxite.
Elemental gallium is a soft, silvery blue metal at standard temperature
and pressure, a brittle solid at low temperatures, and a liquid at
temperatures greater than 29.76 °C (85.57 °F) (above room temperature, but
below the normal human body temperature, (37.5 °C (99.5 °F)) hence, the
metal will melt in a person's hands).The melting point of gallium is used
as a temperature reference point. Gallium alloys are used in thermometers
as a non-toxic and environmentally friendly alternative to mercury, and
can withstand higher temperatures than mercury. The alloy galinstan (70%
gallium, 21.5% indium, and 10% tin) has an even lower melting point of −19
°C (−2 °F), well below the freezing point of water. Since its discovery in
1875, gallium has been used to make alloys with low melting points. It is
also used in semiconductors as a dopant in semiconductor substrates.
Gallium is predominantly used in electronics. Gallium arsenide, the
primary chemical compound of gallium in electronics, is used in microwave
circuits, high-speed switching circuits, and infrared circuits.
Semiconducting gallium nitride and indium gallium nitride produce blue and
violet light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and diode lasers. Gallium is also used
in the production of artificial gadolinium gallium garnet for jewelry.
Gallium has no known natural role in biology. Gallium(III) behaves in a
similar manner to ferric salts in biological systems and has been used in
some medical applications, including pharmaceuticals and
radiopharmaceuticals.
PTG Wastewater Disinfection
Purified Water is water that has been mechanically
filtered or processed to
remove impurities and make it suitable for use.
Distilled water has been the most common form of purified water, but, in
recent years, water is more frequently purified by other processes
including capacitive deionization, reverse osmosis, carbon filtering,
microfiltration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodeionization.
Ultrapure Water is water that has been purified to uncommonly
stringent specifications. Ultrapure water is a commonly used term in the
semiconductor industry to emphasize the fact that the water is treated to
the highest levels of purity for all contaminant types, including: organic
and inorganic compounds; dissolved and particulate matter; volatile and
non-volatile, reactive and inert; hydrophilic and hydrophobic; and
dissolved gases.
Spring Water or
Mineral Water, or
Structured Water are some
of the healthiest waters you can drink because they're clean and contain
all the essential minerals your body needs. Filtered water removes
contaminants but might also remove essential minerals. Dasani is one of
the most acidic bottles on the market. pH level 6.0. Aquafina water comes
from municipal water sources. purified-water imprint, which is
remineralized with magnesium sulfate, potassium chloride, and salt.
Aquafina is purified water that goes through a seven-step HydRO-7
filtration process that it claims takes out way more solids than other
filtration methods, making for the purest water possible.
Wells.
Artesian Water has a
superior balance of the proper minerals and nutrients important for your
health. Nothing needs to be filtered out, and no chemicals need to be
added. Artesian water is really not different from other
groundwater, except for the fact that it flows to the land surface
because pressure in the rocks underground force it to the surface. But,
having water flow to the surface naturally is a handy way to tap
groundwater resources.
Distilled Water
is water that has been boiled into vapor and condensed back into liquid in
a separate container. Impurities in the original water that do not boil
below or near the boiling point of water remain in the original container.
Thus, distilled water is one type of purified water.
Distillation involves
boiling the water and then
condensing the steam into
a clean container.
Conductivity of Different Water Types.
You can drink distilled
water but you might not like the taste because it's flatter and less
flavorful than tap and bottled waters. Companies produce distilled water
by boiling water and then condensing the collected steam back into a
liquid. This process removes impurities
and
minerals from the water.
Distilled
water is a bad conductor of electricity because its molecules do
not have free electrons to transfer electrical current. Pure water
consists of an oxygen molecule that is chemically bonded to two hydrogen
molecules. Oxygen has six electrons in its outer reactive shell and room
for two more, and hydrogen atoms have one electron each, meaning that a
perfect chemical bond forms. Water is, however, a superlative solvent; the
free ions from impurities like salts and
minerals dissolved in the water enable it to conduct electricity. When
water contains a large amount of these ions, it conducts electricity so
well that the electricity will ignore less efficient conductors — like
human bodies — and stick to the better pathway; the multitude of ions in
the water.
Vapor
Distilled Water is a type of purified water that is created using a
specialized heating process. It is freed of extra molecules and
particulates, and is one of the "cleanest" forms of water that can be
created in a lab. Vapor-distilled water does not occur naturally.
Slingshot Water Vapor Distillation System.
Capacitive Deionization is a technology to deionize water by applying
an electrical potential difference over two electrodes, which are often
made of porous carbon. Anions, ions with a negative charge, are removed
from the water and are stored in the positively polarized electrode.
Likewise, cations (positive charge) are stored in the cathode, which is
the negatively polarized electrode. Today, CDI is mainly used for the
desalination of brackish water, which is water with a low or moderate salt
concentration (below 10 g/L). Other technologies for the deionization of
water are, amongst others, distillation, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis. Compared to reverse osmosis and distillation, CDI is
considered to be an energy-efficient technology for brackish water
desalination. This is mainly because CDI removes the salt ions from the
water, while the other technologies extract the water from the salt
solution. Historically, CDI has been referred to as electrochemical
demineralization, "electrosorb process for desalination of water", or
electrosorption of salt ions. It also goes by the names of capacitive
desalination, or in the commercial literature as "CapDI".
Water Revitalization Units work with natural energy - without the need
for electricity or chemical additives.
John Grander
(wiki).
Hard Water -
Soft Water
Aquaporin Water Purification
Aquaporin (wiki)
MSR SE200 Community Chlorine Maker
Zuvowater
Alter Ego Personal Water Filtration
Water Cones -
Watercone® for
Google Project 10^100 (youtube)
Portapure
Drinkpure Water Filtration Device
The Drinkable Book - Water is Life
The Drinkable Book - Water is Life (youtube)
Janicki Omniprocessor
(youtube)
Eureka Forbes AquaSure Amrit with Kitanu Magnet
Method of Binding Pollutants in Water
Arsenic Water Filter
Arsenic Removal Using Bottom Ash (ARUBA)
SE200™ Community Chlorine Maker
Zero Mass Water
Hydropanel that makes drinking water from sunlight and air.
Low-Tech, Affordable Solutions to Improve Water Quality
System Selectively Sequesters Toxins from Water. Engineers develop
technology to pull specific contaminants from drinking and wastewater,
pipelines.
Filter water with a porous form of
cyclodextrin polymer, superior to traditional
activated carbon
filters could be washed at room temperature with
methanol or ethanol.
Novel Nanoparticle to remove Cadmium Toxicity from a Freshwater System.
Coffee-infused foam removes lead from contaminated water.
City Water
Purification
Survival Kits
(emergencies)
Electrospun Nanofibrous Membranes of Polyacrylonitrile/halloysite with
Superior Water Filtration Ability. Electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
nanofibrous membranes.
Water filtration breakthrough using
metal-organic frameworks. Researchers discover efficient and sustainable
way to filter
salt and metal ions from water.
Metal-Organic Framework are compounds consisting of
metal ions or
clusters coordinated to organic ligands to form one-, two-, or
three-dimensional structures. They are a subclass of coordination
polymers, with the special feature that they are often porous. The organic
ligands included are sometimes referred to as "struts", one example being
1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid (BDC). More formally, a metal–organic
framework is a coordination network with organic ligands containing
potential voids. A coordination network is a coordination compound
extending, through repeating coordination entities, in one dimension, but
with cross-links between two or more individual chains, loops, or spiro-links,
or a coordination compound extending through repeating coordination
entities in two or three dimensions; and finally a coordination polymer is
a coordination compound with repeating coordination entities extending in
one, two, or three dimensions. In some cases, the pores are stable during
elimination of the guest molecules (often solvents) and could be refilled
with other compounds. Because of this property,
MOFs are of interest for
the storage of gases such as hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Other possible
applications of MOFs are in gas purification, in gas separation, in
catalysis, as sensors and as supercapacitors. The synthesis and properties
of MOFs constitute the primary focus of the discipline called reticular
chemistry (from Latin reticulum, "small net"). Differently from MOFs
covalent organic framework (COFs) are made entirely from light elements
(H, B, C, N, and O) with extended structures.
Matrix -
Membranes -
Porous
Roadmap for finding new functional porous materials. A recent study
has revealed how future structures of metal–organic polyhedra or MOPs can
be predicted and designed at the molecular level. The discovery of new
structures holds tremendous promise for accessing advanced functional
materials in energy and environmental applications.
New material cleans and splits water. A
photocatalytic
system based on a material in the class of metal-organic frameworks.
The system can be used to degrade pollutants present in water while
simultaneously producing
hydrogen that
can be captured and used further. The first type of photocatalysis,
hydrogen production, involves a reaction called “
water-splitting”.
The second type of photocatalysis is referred to as “
organic
pollutant degradation”, which refers to processes breaking down
pollutants present in water.
Artificial Bio-Inspired Membranes for Water Filtration.
Flower-like structure costs less than 2 cents and can produce more than
half a gallon of water per hour per square meter. A technique that
uses energy from sunlight to separate salt and other impurities from water
through evaporation.
Polypyrrole is a material known for its photothermal properties,
meaning it's particularly good at converting solar light into thermal
heat. The device collects water through its stem-like tube -- feeding it
to the flower-shaped structure on top. It can also collect rain drops
coming from above. Water finds its way to the petals where the polypyrrole
material coating the flower turns the water into steam. Impurities
naturally separate from water when condensed in this way. We designed the
purification-collection unisystem to include a connection point for a
low-pressure pump to help condense the water more effectively. The device
removes any contamination from heavy metals and bacteria, and it removes
salt from seawater, producing clean water that meets drinking standard
requirements set by the World Health Organization. Our rational design and
low-cost fabrication of 3D origami photothermal materials represents a
first-of-its-kind portable low-pressure solar-steaming-collection system.
Water
Taste: Water near the beach often has a slight scent of sulfur
because of sulfur-producing microbes in groundwater. The stuff purified
from some rivers or lakes can have an earthy, organic taste to it that
results from leftover bits of decomposing plant matter. If you live in
cities like New York or San Francisco, you enjoy pristine, delicious
reservoir water piped in from distant mountains. Water bottled from
mountain springs, like that from wells, can be packed with minerals that
alter its flavor. Calcium makes water taste milky and smooth,
magnesium can be bitter, and sodium makes it taste salty.
Water Sommelier.
Adsorbent Materials
for use in the industrial treatment of water have evaluated two types of
phyllosilicates: a highly-charged expandable synthetic mica (Na-Mica-4),
and one obtained from cation exchange with an organo-functionalised mica (C18-Mica-4).
Phyllosilicates are a subclass of silicates and include common mineral in
very different environments. The results show that the material C18-Mica-4
is capable of eliminating the majority of pollutants that were evaluated
in urban waste water, as well as surface water and potable water. The
study, also, provided data on the adsorption mechanism and establishes a
significant correlation between the physical-chemical properties of the
selected criteria and emerging pollutants and the adsorption to the
material. In total, 18 organic pollutants were studied, among which were
industrial pollutants, personal care products, and the pharmacologically
active ingredients such as anti-inflammatories, antibiotics,
anti-epileptics, central nervous system stimulants and lipid-lowering
agents, among others. Nine active pharmacological ingredients were also
tested (diclofenac, ibuprofen, salicylic acid, trimethoprim,
carbamazepine, propranolol, caffeine, clofibric acid and gemfibrozil).
Taken to achieve different therapeutic effects, these all end up polluting
our waters, essentially, via human excretion. The study was carried out on
untreated urban wastewater, treated urban wastewater, surface water from
rivers and potable water.
Adsorb is
to accumulate liquids or gases on the surface.
Water Soluble (vitamins)
Adsorbent is a material having capacity or tendency to adsorb
another substance.
Adsorption is the
adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid
to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface
of the adsorbent. This process differs from absorption, in which a fluid
(the absorbate) is dissolved by or
permeates a liquid
or solid (the absorbent), respectively. Adsorption is a surface-based
process, while absorption involves the whole volume of the material. The
term sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse
of it. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon.
Sponge is a
multicellular organisms that have bodies full of
pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them,
consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of
cells. The branch of zoology that studies sponges is known as spongiology.
New process could safeguard water quality, environment and health.
Pioneering single process can remove pollutants from waste water.
New System Recovers Fresh Water from Power Plants. About
39 percent of all the fresh water withdrawn
from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in the U.S. is earmarked for the
cooling needs of electric power plants that use fossil fuels or nuclear
power, and much of that water ends up floating away in clouds of vapor.
But the new MIT system could potentially save a substantial fraction of
that lost water -- and could even become a significant source of clean,
safe drinking water for coastal cities where seawater is used to cool
local power plants. When air that's rich in fog is zapped with a beam of
electrically charged particles, known as ions, water droplets become
electrically charged and thus can be drawn toward a mesh of wires, similar
to a window screen, placed in their path. The droplets then collect on
that mesh, drain down into a collecting pan, and can be reused in the
power plant or sent to a city's water supply system.
Purifying water with the help of wood, bacteria and the sun. According
to the United Nations, about one-fifth of the world's population lives in
areas where water is scarce. Therefore, technologies to produce clean
water from undrinkable sources, such as seawater, river or lake water, and
contaminated water, are urgently needed. Now, researchers have developed a
wood-based steam generator that, with the help of bacterial-produced
nanomaterials, harnesses solar energy to purify water.
Desalination - Clean Drinking Water from Seawater
Desalination is the removal of
Salts and
Minerals
from sea water to produce water suitable for human consumption or
irrigation. The most commonly used technology for desalination is
reverse osmosis (RO), a process in which seawater
is forced through a membrane capable of removing salts and other small
molecule contaminants. While the use of RO continues to rise around
the world, many of its drawbacks, which include high energy consumption
and a propensity for membranes to foul, continue to plague the industry.
How Seawater
Desalination Works (youtube)
Water Filters -
Soil
Salinity -
Hydrosphere
Seawater
is water from a sea or ocean has a
salinity of about
3.5%, roughly one litre by volume of seawater has approximately 35 grams
(1.2 oz) of dissolved salts. Water that has .05% salt is safe to drink.
Water with over 3.0% salt will make you sick.
PH.
Saline Water or salt water, is water that contains a
significant concentration of dissolved salts (mainly
NaCl).
Green Desalination Project -
Sorek Desalination Plant
Solar Still distills water, using the heat of the
Sun to
evaporate, cool then collect the water. There are many types of
solar still, including large scale concentrated solar stills, and
condensation traps (better known as moisture traps amongst survivalists).
In a solar still, impure water is contained outside the collector, where
it is evaporated by sunlight shining through clear plastic or glass. The
pure
water vapor condenses on the cool inside surface and drips down,
where it is collected and removed.
Distillation replicates the way nature
makes
rain. The sun's energy heats water to the point of evaporation. As
the water evaporates, water vapor rises, condensing into water again as it
cools and can then be collected. This process leaves behind impurities,
such as salts and heavy metals, and eliminates
microbiological organisms.
The end result is pure
distilled water.
Solar Evaporator offers a fresh route to Fresh Water. Self-cleaning
device made of wood aims to make small-scale desalination more practical.
The design employs a technique known as interfacial evaporation, which are
made of thin materials that float on saline water. Absorbing solar heat on
top, the evaporators continuously pull up the saline water from below and
convert it to steam on their top surface, leaving behind the salt. About a
billion people around the world lack access to safe drinking water.
Solar-Powered Water Desalination. A completely passive solar-powered
desalination system could provide
more than 1.5
gallons of fresh drinking water per hour for every square meter of
solar collecting area. Such systems could potentially serve off-grid arid
coastal areas to provide an efficient, low-cost water source.
Solar-powered system offers a route to inexpensive desalination.
Passive solar evaporation system could be used to clean wastewater,
provide potable water, or sterilize medical tools in off-grid areas.
Researchers developed a desalination system that is more efficient and
less expensive than previous methods. In addition to providing fresh
water, the process could be used to treat contaminated wastewater or
generate steam for sterilizing medical instruments, all without requiring
a power source other than sunlight.
Solar Water
Solutions makes clean water with solar power. Affordable and
sustainable desalination can revolutionize economies in the developing
world and in the water-thirsty regions globally. Our patented reverse
osmosis technology was listed on the TIME’s Best Inventions of 2020.
Dewvaporation desalination technology energy
efficient tool for freshwater procurement and saline waste stream
management.
Desalination Water Treatment Systems
(amazon).
3D-printed microstructure forest facilitates solar steam generator
desalination. Faced with the world's impending freshwater scarcity,
researchers turned to
solar steam generators, which are emerging as a promising device for
seawater desalination. The team sought design inspiration from trees and
harnessed the potential of 3D printing. They present technology for
producing efficient
SSGs
for desalination and introduces a novel method for printing functional
nanocomposites for multi-jet fusion. Their SSGs were inspired by plant
transpiration and are composed of miniature tree-shaped microstructures,
forming an efficient, heat-distributing forest.
Sea Clearwater Makers -
Pure Aqua
Desalination Technologies
Cleaning or desalinating water quickly: Looking deep into
smallest pores. Membranes of
vertically aligned carbon nanotubes can be used to clean or desalinate
water at high flow rate and low pressure. Recently, researchers carried
out steroid hormone adsorption experiments to study the interplay of
forces in the small pores. They found that VaCNT of specific pore geometry
and pore surface structure are suited for use as highly selective
membranes.
From seawater to drinking water, with the push of a button.
Researchers build a
portable desalination unit
that generates clear, clean drinking water without the need for filters or
high-pressure pumps. Researchers created a portable desalination unit that
can remove particles and salts simultaneously to generate drinking water.
The user-friendly unit, which weighs less than 10 kilograms and does not
require filters, can be powered by a small,
portable solar panel.
Solar
Powered Personal Desolenator.
Water, water, every where, Nor any drop to drink. Water, Water
Everywhere, and Not a Drop to Drink.
Researchers make headway in Desalination Technology. Desalination of
brackish waters economically desirable and energy efficient.
Sodium-ion batteries theory states that by using electrodes that contain
sodium and chloride ions, salt is drawn out and held in a chamber
separate from the purified water.
Efficient High-Pressure Desalination. Most desalination plants today
use a process called reverse osmosis (RO), which forces water through huge
rolls of membranes, leaving the salt behind. One of the most expensive
operational challenges for such plants is the fouling of these membranes
by microorganisms.
CETO Wave-Energy and Desalinates
Water.
SAROS is a
wave-powered desalination system which uses the energy in
waves to access the nearly limitless supply of water found in our oceans.
Sahara Forest Project aims to provide fresh water, food and renewable
energy in hot, arid regions as well as re-vegetating areas of uninhabited
desert. This proposal combines saltwater-cooled greenhouses with solar
power technologies, either directly using Photovoltaic (PV) or indirectly
using concentrated solar power (CSP) and technologies for desert
revegetation. It is claimed that these technologies together will create a
sustainable and profitable source of energy, food, vegetation and water.
Sahara Forest Project.
Aquaporins Desalination Filter -
Aquaporin (wiki)
Masdar Institute’s Innovative Wastewater Treatment Technologies to Help
Meet Growing Freshwater Demand.
Graphene sieve turns seawater into drinking water. Graphene-oxide
membranes developed at the National Graphene Institute have already
demonstrated the potential of filtering out small
nanoparticles, organic
molecules, and even large salts. Until now, however, they couldn’t be used
for sieving common salts used in desalination technologies, which require
even smaller sieves. Previous research at The University of Manchester
found that if immersed in water, graphene-oxide membranes become slightly
swollen and smaller salts flow through the membrane along with water, but
larger ions or molecules are blocked. The Manchester-based group have now
further developed these
graphene membranes and found a strategy to avoid
the swelling of the membrane when exposed to water. The pore size in the
membrane can be precisely controlled which can sieve common salts out of
salty water and make it safe to drink.
A New Method for Water Desalination Using Microbial Desalination Cells
(PDF)
Ionic 'Solar Cell' could provide On-Demand Water Desalination.
Ionic analog to the electronic pn-junction
solar cell device that would directly desalinate saltwater upon
exposure to
sunlight.
Bipolar-membrane design for ionic electricity generation. The transport of
oppositely charged protons and hydroxides obtained by dissociating water
molecules.
Low-Cost Seawater Desalination Device. UNIST scientists recently
unveiled an innovative, low-cost seawater desalination device that
transforms seawater into drinking water. The device effectively captures
the sun’s energy and improves freshwater conversion and device
performance, and durability.What’s more, it is easy to construct via 3D
printing methods. This solar printed solar evaporator can efficiently
utilize solar energy (99%) with an evaporation rate of 1.60 kg m–2 h–1 and
efficiency of 89% under one sun irradiation. The efficiency of a
solar-driven water evaporation system is limited due to the lack of a
proper design for the evaporator to deal with either a large amount of
heat loss or salt accumulation. Scientists addressed these issues via two
cost-effective approaches: (1) A rational design of a concave-shaped
supporter by 3D-printing that can promote the light-harvesting capacity
via multiple reflections on the surface, 2) The use of a double-layered
photo absorber composed of a hydrophilic bottom layer of a polydopamine
(PDA) coated glass fiber (GF/C) and a hydrophobic upper layer of a
carbonized poly(vinyl alcohol)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVA/PVP) hydrogel on
the supporter, which provides competitive benefit for preventing
deposition of salt while quickly pumping the water.
Simultaneous Energy Storage and Seawater. Desalination using
Rechargeable Seawater Battery: Feasibility and Future Directions
Rechargeable seawater battery (SWB) is a unique energy storage system that
can directly transform seawater into renewable energy. Placing a
desalination compartment between SWB anode and cathode (denoted as
seawater battery desalination; SWB-D) enables seawater desalination while
charging SWB. Since seawater desalination is a mature technology,
primarily occupied by membrane-based processes such as reverse osmosis
(RO), the energy cost has to be considered for alternative desalination
technologies.
Nanofluidic device generates power with saltwater. There is a largely
untapped energy source along the world's coastlines: the difference in
salinity between seawater and freshwater. A new
nanodevice can harness this
difference to generate power by using a design for a nanofluidic device
capable of converting ionic flow into usable electric power.
Sundrop Farms now produces 15 per cent of the Australian tomato market
– all of it grown using seawater.
Seawater
Greenhouse -
Somaliland Seawater Greenhouse
Filter for an Aquarium are critical components of both freshwater and
marine aquaria. Aquarium filters remove physical and soluble chemical
waste products from aquaria, simplifying maintenance. Furthermore,
aquarium filters are necessary to support life as aquaria are relatively
small, closed volumes of water compared to the natural environment of most fish.
Illuminating Water Filtration. Researchers using ultrabright X-rays
reveal the molecular structure of membranes used in
reverse osmosis to purify seawater into drinking water.
Membranes
Membrane is a
selective barrier; it
allows some things to pass through but stops others.
Such things may be molecules, ions, or other small particles. Biological
membranes include cell membranes (outer coverings of
cells or organelles
that allow passage of certain constituents); nuclear membranes, which
cover a cell nucleus; and tissue membranes, such as mucosae and serosae.
Synthetic membranes are made by humans for use in laboratories and
industry (such as chemical plants).
MOF.
Membrane
Technology covers all engineering approaches for the transport of
substances between two fractions with the help of permeable membranes. In
general, mechanical separation processes for separating gaseous or liquid
streams use membrane technology.
Metal Ions.
Synthetic
Membrane is a synthetically created membrane which is usually intended
for separation purposes in laboratory or in industry. A wide variety of
synthetic membranes is known. They can be produced from organic materials
such as polymers and liquids, as well as inorganic materials. The most of
commercially utilized synthetic membranes in separation industry are made
of polymeric structures. They can be classified based on their surface
chemistry, bulk structure, morphology, and production method. The chemical
and physical properties of synthetic membranes and separated particles as
well as a choice of driving force define a particular membrane separation
process. The most commonly used driving forces of a membrane process in
industry are pressure and concentration gradients. The respective membrane
process is therefore known as filtration. Synthetic membranes utilized in
a separation process can be of different geometry and of respective flow
configuration. They can also be categorized based on their application and
separation regime. The best known synthetic membrane separation processes
include water purification, reverse osmosis, dehydrogenation of natural
gas, removal of cell particles by microfiltration and ultrafiltration,
removal of microorganisms from dairy products, and Dialysis.
Filtering.
Semipermeable Membrane is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric
membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by
diffusion—or occasionally by more specialized processes of facilitated
diffusion, passive transport or active transport. The
rate of passage depends on the pressure, concentration, and temperature of
the molecules or solutes on either side, as well as the permeability of
the membrane to each solute. Depending on the membrane and the solute,
permeability may depend on solute size, solubility, properties, or
chemistry. How the membrane is constructed to be selective in its
permeability will determine the rate and the permeability. Many natural
and synthetic materials thicker than a membrane are also semipermeable.
One example of this is the thin film on the inside of the egg. Note that a
semipermeable membrane is not the same as a selectively permeable
membrane. Semipermeable membrane describes a membrane that allows some
particles to pass through (by size), whereas the selectively permeable
membrane "chooses" what passes through (size is not a factor).
Perfuse is to force a fluid through a body
part or tissue.
Infiltrate is to
cause a liquid to enter by penetrating the interstices. To pass into or
through by
filtering or permeating. To pass
through an enemy line; in a military conflict. To perforate. To pass into
or through, often by overcoming resistance.
Imbue is to spread or diffuse through. To
fill, soak, or imbue totally. Suffuse with color. Pervade.
Suffuse is to cause to spread or flush or
flood through, over, or across. To become overspread as with a fluid, a
colour, a gleam of light.
Nanofiltration is a relatively recent membrane filtration process used
most often with low total dissolved solids water such as surface water and
fresh groundwater, with the purpose of softening (polyvalent cation
removal) and removal of disinfection by-product precursors such as natural
organic matter and synthetic organic matter. Nanofiltration is also
becoming more widely used in food processing applications such as dairy,
for simultaneous concentration and partial (monovalent ion)
demineralisation.
Microfiltration is a type of physical
filtration
process where a contaminated fluid is passed through a special pore-sized
membrane to separate microorganisms and suspended particles from process
liquid. It is commonly used in conjunction with various other separation
processes such as ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis to provide a product
stream which is free of undesired contaminants.
Ultrafiltration is a variety of membrane filtration in which forces
like pressure or concentration gradients lead to a separation through a
semipermeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular
weight are retained in the so-called retentate, while water and low
molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane in the permeate
(filtrate). This separation process is used in industry and research for
purifying and concentrating macromolecular (103 - 106 Da) solutions,
especially protein solutions. Ultrafiltration is not fundamentally
different from microfiltration. Both of these separate based on size
exclusion or particle capture. It is fundamentally different from membrane
gas separation, which separate based on different amounts of absorption
and different rates of diffusion. Ultrafiltration membranes are defined by
the molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of the membrane used. Ultrafiltration
is applied in cross-flow or dead-end mode.
Separation Process.
Electrospray technology is used to create ultra-thin, ultra-smooth
polyamide membranes for reverse osmosis. This scalable process allows
for better control of a membrane's fundamental properties, avoids the use
of chemical baths, and can be applied to a variety of membrane separation
processes. Extremely thin polyamide film measuring approximately 1.1
microns thick that has been successfully separated from its underlying
substrate, an advantage unique to a new UConn fabrication process and one
that makes it easier to characterize the film's properties. Using an
additive manufacturing
approach employing electrospraying, UConn scientists were able to create
ultra-thin, ultra-smooth polyamide membranes that are less prone to
fouling and may require less power to move water through them.
Osmotic Pressure is the minimum
pressure which
needs to be applied to a
solution to prevent the
inward flow of its pure
solvent across a
semipermeable membrane. It is also defined as the measure of the tendency
of a solution to take in its pure solvent by osmosis. Potential osmotic
pressure is the maximum osmotic pressure that could develop in a solution
if it were separated from its pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane.
Siphon.
Desalination breakthrough could lead to cheaper water filtration.
Desalination membranes are inconsistent in density and mass distribution,
which can hold back their performance. Uniform density at the nanoscale is
the key to increasing how much clean water these membranes can create.
Turning desalination waste into a useful resource. Process developed
at MIT could turn concentrated brine into useful chemicals, making
desalination more efficient. Sodium hydroxide is not the only product that
can be made from the waste brine: Another important chemical used by
desalination plants and many other industrial processes is hydrochloric
acid, which can also easily be made on site from the waste brine using
established chemical processing methods. The chemical can be used for
cleaning parts of the desalination plant, but is also widely used in
chemical production and as a source of hydrogen.
Desalination brine, which can be laden with residual chemicals from
the treatment process as well as excess heat, is damaging to the marine
environment. Most coastal desalination facilities discharge their waste
back into the ocean. ... They are instead concentrated in a hyper-saline
brine. The amount of brine generated by the world’s nearly
16,000 desalination plants is 50 percent
larger than earlier assumptions. Just four countries on the Arabian
Peninsula account for 32 percent of global desalinated water but 55
percent of global brine production. Brine is generally defined as water
with a salt concentration higher than 50 parts per thousand, though some
brines can be several times saltier. Average salinity of the world’s
oceans is roughly 35 parts per thousand. The discharge can also contain
precious elements like uranium. This might be enough incentive to turn
desal brine from a noxious byproduct into a source of revenue. Or you
might use evaporative pools inland to produce commercial road salt for
deicing roads.
Water from Trees:
Maple Water.
Solvay Process is the major industrial process for the production of
sodium carbonate (soda ash, Na2CO3). The ammonia-soda process was
developed into its modern form by Ernest Solvay during the 1860s. The
ingredients for this are readily available and inexpensive: salt brine
(from inland sources or from the sea) and limestone (from quarries). The
worldwide production of soda ash in 2005 has been estimated at 42 million
metric tons, which is more than six kilograms (13 lb) per year for each
person on Earth. Solvay-based chemical plants now produce roughly
three-quarters of this supply, with the remaining being mined from natural
deposits. This method superseded the Leblanc process.
Brine is
a high-concentration solution of salt in water. In different contexts,
brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical
concentration of seawater, on the lower end of solutions used for brining
foods) up to about 26% (a typical saturated solution, depending on
temperature). Lower levels of concentration are called by different names:
fresh water, brackish water, and saline water. Brine naturally occurs on
the Earth's surface (salt lakes), crust, and within brine pools on ocean
bottom. High-concentration brine lakes typically emerge due to evaporation
of ground saline water on high ambient temperatures. Brine is used for
food processing and cooking (pickling and brining), for de-icing of roads
and other structures, and in a number of technological processes. It is
also a by-product of many industrial processes, such as desalination, and
may pose an environmental risk due to its corrosive and toxic effects, so
it requires wastewater treatment for proper disposal or further
utilization (fresh water recovery).
Salt Water is More Dense than Fresh Water.
Density = mass/volume. Increasing the mass by adding salt increases the
density. Seawater is a little bit more dense than fresh water so it sinks
beneath freshwater. This means that when rivers flow out into the sea the
river freshwater floats on top of the sea water. Isohalines are areas in
the water that have equal salt concentrations, or salinities. In
estuaries, salinity levels are generally highest near the mouth of a
river where the ocean water enters, and lowest upstream where fresh water
flows in.
Scientists Discover a Vast Reservoir of Semi-Freshwater Hidden Beneath The
Ocean. Signals of the water first showed up in the 1970s. Salt water
is a more effective conductor of electromagnetic (EM) waves than fresh
water, so EM receivers deployed off the coast enabled the researchers to
map the extent of the mysterious aquifer. The results, published in a
study detailing the first comprehensive attempt to map this giant
reservoir, reveal a mostly "continuous submarine aquifer system spans at
least 350?km [217 miles] of the US Atlantic coast and contains about
2,800? cubic kilometres of low-salinity groundwater". As for how the
aquifer got there, the researchers say it likely happened when vast
amounts of fresh meltwater from the last Ice Age got trapped in rocky
sediment.
Water Research.
Water From Air
Atmospheric Water Generator is a device that
extracts water from humid ambient air.
Water vapor in the air is condensed
by cooling the air below its
dew point, exposing the air to desiccants, or
pressurizing the air. Unlike a
dehumidifier, an AWG is designed to render
the water potable. AWGs are useful where pure drinking water is difficult
or impossible to obtain, because there is almost always a small amount of
water in the air that can be extracted. The two primary techniques in use
are cooling and
desiccants,
which is a
hygroscopic substance that is used to
induce or sustain a state of dryness or desiccation in its vicinity.
Water Gen Atmospheric
Water Generation.
Fresh Water from the Air -
Water Generator
WaterSeer extracting Water from the Air
Ecolo
Blue
High Volume Water Making
Machines
Planets Water 300 Gallons a Day
DIY Water Generator (PDF)
Smart Oasis
produces drinking water from the air.
UTEC - Potable Water Generator (youtube)
Hand-held Water Harvester powered by sunlight could combat water
scarcity.
Drawing water from dry air. A prototype device harvests drinking water
from the atmosphere, even in arid places. Earth's atmosphere holds an
ocean of water, enough liquid to fill Utah's Great Salt Lake 800 times.
Skysource is an
atmospheric water generator that condenses moisture in the atmosphere and
filters it, making fresh drinking water.
water xprize.
Zero Mass is a
Hydropaneltm that makes drinking water from sunlight and air. Water flows
into a 30 liter reservoir where it is mineralized for optimal taste,
storing up to 120 standard bottles per 2-panel array. Produces 4 – 10
liters, per 2-panel array of water a day depending on the humidity and
sunlight. $2,000.00.
Hydrophile
is a molecule or other molecular entity that is attracted to water
molecules and tends to be dissolved by water. In contrast, hydrophobes are
not attracted to water and may seem to be repelled by it.
NDB
Nano -
Edward Linnacre's AirDrop Irrigation (youtube)
Fontus can produce 0.5 quarts (0.5 liters) of water
in 1 hour between 86 degrees and 104 degrees Fahrenheit
(30 to 40 degrees Celsius) and
between 80 percent and 90 percent humidity.
A
condensator (which functions like a cooler) that
is connected to a series of
hydrophobic surfaces that repel water. As the
bike-mounted gadget
takes in air, and these surfaces get cold, you're
left with condensation does not include a way to filter
out potentially harmful contaminants.
Fog Collection refers to the collection of water
from fog using large pieces of vertical canvas to make the fog condense
into droplets of water and flow down towards a trough below the canvas,
known as a fog fence.
Water from Fog (youtube) -
Fog Harvesting
Fog consists of visible cloud water droplets
or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. Fog
can be considered a type of low-lying cloud and is heavily influenced by
nearby bodies of water, topography, and wind conditions. In turn, fog has
affected many human activities, such as shipping, travel, and warfare.
Fog Quest is
innovative fog collectors as well as effective rainfall collectors to make
optimum use of natural atmospheric sources of water.
Warka Water Tower -
Ethiopia
Device pulls Water from Dry Air, Powered only by the Sun. Imagine a
future in which every home has an appliance that pulls all the water the
household needs out of the air, even in dry or desert climates, using only
the power of the sun. The prototype, under conditions of 20-30 percent
humidity, was able to pull 2.8 liters (3 quarts) of water from the air
over a 12-hour period, using one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of
MOF. Rooftop
tests at MIT confirmed that the device works in real-world conditions.
Device Harvests Water from Desert Air. High-surface-area materials
called
metal-organic frameworks or MOFs, can extract potable water from
even the driest of desert air with relative
humidity
as low as 10 percent.
This salty gel could harvest water from desert air. A new material
developed by engineers exhibits 'record-breaking' vapor absorption. MIT
engineers have synthesized a superabsorbent material that can soak up a
record amount of moisture from the air, even in desert-like conditions.
Technology pulls drinking water from the air, 24 hours a day, with no
energy input. It can harvest water 24 hours around the clock, with no
energy input, even under the blazing sun. The new device essentially
consists of a specially coated glass pane, which both reflects solar
radiation and also radiates away its own heat through the atmosphere to
the outer space. It thus cools itself down to as much as 15 degrees
Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit) below the ambient temperature. On the
underside of this pane, water vapour from the air condenses into water.
The process is the same as can be observed on poorly insulated windows in
winter. The scientists coated the glass with specifically designed polymer
and silver layers. This special coating approach causes the pane to emit
infrared radiation at a specific wavelength window to the outer space,
with no absorption by the atmosphere nor reflection back onto the pane.
Another key element of the device is a novel cone-shaped radiation shield.
It largely deflects heat radiation from the atmosphere and shields the
pane from incoming solar radiation, while allowing the device to radiate
the aforementioned heat outward and thus to self-cool, fully passively.
SOURCE Hydropanel makes, stores, and dispenses clean, mineralized
water, around 1 gallon a day. A fan draws in ambient air and pushes it
through a hygroscopic, or water-absorbing material, that traps water vapor
from the air. The water vapor is extracted and passively condenses into
liquid that is collected in the reservoir.
Minerals are added to make perfect drinking water.
Re-Minerlization Filter Kit - NU Aqua Alkaline 5 Stage.
Watch water form out of thin air. For first time, researchers
witnessed formation of nanosized water bubbles in real time.
Palladium, a rare metallic element, can rapidly generate water from
hydrogen and oxygen. Researchers witnessed this process at the nanoscale
for the first time with an electron microscope. By viewing the process
with extreme precision, researchers discovered how to optimize it to
generate water at a faster rate. Process could be used to generate water
on-demand in arid environments, including on other planets.
Metal-Organic Framework are
compounds consisting of metal ions or
clusters coordinated to organic ligands to form one-, two-, or
three-dimensional structures. They are a subclass of coordination
polymers, with the special feature that they are often porous. The organic
ligands included are sometimes referred to as "struts", one example being
1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid (BDC). More formally, a metal–organic
framework is a coordination
network with organic ligands containing
potential voids. A coordination network is a coordination compound
extending, through repeating coordination entities, in one dimension, but
with cross-links between two or more individual chains, loops, or spiro-links, or a coordination compound extending through repeating
coordination entities in two or three
dimensions; and finally a
coordination polymer is a coordination compound with repeating
coordination entities extending in one, two, or three dimensions. In some
cases, the
pores are stable during elimination of the guest molecules
(often solvents) and could be used for the storage of gases such as
hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Other possible applications of MOFs are
in gas purification, in gas separation, in catalysis, as sensors and as
supercapacitors.
Reticular Chemistry is
concerned largely (but in principle, not exclusively) with the synthesis
and properties of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), particularly those in
which the components are linked by strong bonds such as occur in metal
carboxylates.
Kilogram of MOF produces 200 ml of water per day/night cycle from dry air,
using only solar energy.
Water Harvesting Inc.
MOF-303 is based on aluminum cations linked by 3,5-pyrazoledicarboxylic
acid units.
Covalent Organic Framework are two-dimensional and three-dimensional
organic solids with extended structures in which building blocks are
linked by strong covalent bonds. COFs are porous and crystalline and are
made entirely from light elements (H, B, C, N, and O) that are known to
form strong covalent bonds in well-established and useful materials such
as diamond, graphite, and boron nitride. Preparation of COF materials from
molecular building blocks would provide covalent frameworks that could be
functionalized into lightweight materials for diverse applications.
Evaporation
-
Dew Point
-
Rain -
Snow
Condensation is the change of the physical
state of matter from
gas phase into
liquid phase, and is the reverse of
evaporation. The word most often refers to the water cycle. It can also be
defined as the change in the state of water vapour to liquid water when in
contact with a liquid or solid surface or
cloud condensation nuclei within
the atmosphere. When the transition happens from the gaseous phase into
the solid phase directly, the change is called deposition, or desublimation,
Sublimation (phase transition), which is the transition of a substance
directly from the solid to the gas phase without passing through the
intermediate liquid phase.
Pesticides - Insecticides - Herbicides
Pesticide are chemicals that are meant to kill
Animals.
Systemic Pesticides are chemicals that are actually
absorbed by a plant when applied to seeds, soil, or leaves. The chemicals
then circulate through the plant's tissues,
killing the insects that feed
on them, as well as the
humans who eat the plant that's infused with the
poison pesticide.
Insecticide is a substance used to kill
insects.
Herbicide or weed killers, are chemical substances
used to control unwanted
plants.
Fungicides are
biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms
used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their
growth.
Fungi can
cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of
yield, quality, and profit. Fungicides are used both in agriculture and to
fight fungal infections in animals. Chemicals used to control oomycetes,
which are not fungi, are also referred to as fungicides, as oomycetes use
the same mechanisms as fungi to infect plants. Fungicides can either be
contact, translaminar or systemic. Contact fungicides are not taken up
into the plant tissue and protect only the plant where the spray is
deposited. Translaminar fungicides redistribute the fungicide from the
upper, sprayed leaf surface to the lower, unsprayed surface. Systemic
fungicides are taken up and redistributed through the xylem vessels. Few
fungicides move to all parts of a plant. Some are locally systemic, and
some move upwardly. Most fungicides that can be bought retail are sold in
a liquid form. A very common active ingredient is sulfur, present at 0.08%
in weaker concentrates, and as high as 0.5% for more potent fungicides.
Fungicides in powdered form are usually around 90% sulfur and are very
toxic. Other active ingredients in fungicides include neem oil, rosemary
oil, jojoba oil, the bacterium Bacillus subtilis, and the beneficial
fungus Ulocladium oudemansii. Fungicide residues have been found on food
for human consumption, mostly from post-harvest treatments. Some
fungicides are dangerous to human health, such as vinclozolin, which has
now been removed from use. Ziram is also a fungicide that is toxic to
humans with long-term exposure, and fatal if ingested. A number of
fungicides are also used in human health care.
Organic Pesticides
-
Bees -
Spray Safe -
Antibiotics
Eco
Smart Safe Pesticides -
Shoppers Guide for Pesticides (pdf)
Pheromone Trap
is a type of insect trap that uses pheromones to lure insects.
Integrated Pest Management is a broad-based approach
that integrates practices for economic control of pests.
Pesticide Action Network (panna) -
Pesticide Watch -
Pesticide Database -
Toxins -
Stressors -
Beyond Pesticides -
Pollution
-
GMO -
Food Pesticide List -
Foods that Have Pesticides (Info-Graph Image)
EWG’s 2024 Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides in Produce: The Dirty Dozen
is packed with fungicides that can disrupt human hormones.
About Pesticide Tolerances.
Soil Testing -
Fertilizers
Neonicotinoid are a class of
neuro-active
insecticides chemically similar to
nicotine.
Methamidophos, trade name "Monitor," is an organophosphate
insecticide. Crops grown with the use of methamidophos include
potatoes and some Latin
American rice. Many nations have used methamidophos on crops, including
developed nations such as Spain, United States, Japan, and Australia. Due
to its toxicity, the use of pesticides that contain methamidophos is
currently being phased out in Brazil. In 2009, all uses in the United
States were voluntarily canceled.
Rootworm larvae can destroy significant percentages
of
corn.
Lawns -
Yards.
Seed Treatment or
seed dressing is when
seeds are treated with a chemical, like an antimicrobial, fungicidal or
insecticide prior to planting. It is usual to add colour to make treated
seed less attractive to birds, and easier to see and clean up in the case
of an accidental spillage. Specialist machinery is required to safely and
efficiently apply the chemical to the seed. A seed coating is a thicker
form of covering of seed and may contain fertiliser, growth promoters and
or seed treatment as well as an inert carrier and a polymer outer shell.
The term "seed dressing" is also used to refer to the process of removing
chaff, weed seeds and straw from a seed stock.
Persistent Organic Pollutant are organic compounds that are
resistant
to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic
processes. Because of their persistence, POPs
bioaccumulate with potential
adverse impacts on human health and the environment. The effect of POPs on
human and environmental health was discussed, with intention to eliminate
or severely restrict their production, by the international community at
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001. Many
POPs are currently or were in the past used as pesticides, solvents,
pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. Although some POPs arise
naturally, for example volcanoes and various biosynthetic pathways, most
are man-made via total synthesis.
DDT pollutants found in deep sea fish off Los Angeles coast. As the
region reckons with its toxic history of offshore dumping off the
California coast, new findings raise troubling questions about whether the
banned pesticide remains a threat to wildlife and human health.
Sugarcane -
Sugar
Atrazine is an herbicide of the triazine class.
Atrazine is used to prevent pre- and postemergence broadleaf weeds in
crops such as maize (corn) and sugarcane and on turf, such as golf courses
and residential lawns.
An effective way to eliminate atrazine and its by-products in surface
water.
Bromomethane is a pesticide being phased out by most
countries in the early 2000.
Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide
and crop desiccant.
Monsanto's Roundup -
False
Advertising
Glyphosate impairs learning in bumblebees. What impacts do
agrochemicals have on the ongoing global insect decline? Biologists have
found out that aversive learning is impaired in bumblebees exposed to
glyphosate.
Chemical Farming &
The Loss of Human Health - Dr. Zach Bush (youtube) - Glyphosate is
causing a dramatic rise of health problems. Autism, Alzheimer's and
Parkinson's Disease.
Heptachlor is Linked To Parkinson's Disease.
Methyl Isocyanate is an organic compound with the molecular formula
CH3NCO. Synonyms are isocyanatomethane, methyl carbylamine, and MIC.
Methyl isocyanate is an intermediate chemical in the production of
carbamate pesticides (such as carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl, and aldicarb).
It has also been used in the production of rubbers and adhesives. As a
highly toxic and irritating material, it is extremely hazardous to human
health. It was the principal toxicant involved in the Bhopal disaster,
which killed nearly 2,259 people initially and officially 3,787 people in
total. This family of organic molecules is involved in the synthesis of
peptides and amino acids, which, in
the form of proteins, are the biological
basis for life as we know it."
Chlorpyrifos is a crystalline organophosphate
insecticide, acaracide and miticide. Chlorpyrifos exposure has been linked
to neurological effects, persistent developmental disorders and
autoimmune
disorders. Exposure during pregnancy
retards the mental development of
children, and most home use was banned in 2001 in the U.S. In agriculture,
it is "one of the most widely used organophosphate insecticides" in the
United States, according to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), and before being phased out for residential use was one of
the most used residential insecticides. On March 29, 2017, EPA
Administrator Scott Pruitt denied a
petition to ban chlorpyrifos.
Toxic Algae or anatoxin-a, is also
known as
Very Fast Death Factor.
Anatoxin-a is a
secondary, bicyclic amine alkaloid and
cyanotoxin with acute
neurotoxicity. Toxic Algae
can be fatal if a person drinks water from a bloom that contains certain
toxins. In California, the most alarming toxin is
domoic
acid, which can disrupt normal nerve signaling in the brain, causing
disorientation and seizures. It can cause death to fish, seabirds, marine
mammals and even people.
Harmful Algal
Bloom or excessive
algae growth, contains organisms that can severely
lower oxygen levels in
natural waters, killing organisms in marine or fresh waters. Some HABs are
associated with algae-produced toxins. Blooms can last from a few days to
many months. After the bloom dies, the microbes that decompose the dead
algae use up even more
of the
oxygen generating a
"
dead
zone", which can cause fish die-offs. When these zones of
depleted oxygen cover a
large area for an extended period of time, neither fish nor plants are
able to survive.
Phycotoxin are complex allelopathic chemicals produced by eukaryotic
and prokaryotic algal secondary metabolic pathways. More simply, these are
toxic chemicals synthesized by
photosynthetic
organisms.
Overuse of herbicides costing UK economy £400 million per year.
Widespread use of herbicides leading to resistant black-grass is costing
UK millions in profit.
The global chemical industry is a major fossil fuel consumer and climate
change contributor. However, new research has identified how the
sector could clean up its green credentials by
getting dirty. Most
chemical reactions involving electricity and organic materials can't be
done efficiently using water because the organic materials don't dissolve
well, forcing industry to use
fossil fuels to
provide heat rather than electricity or use alternative substances to
water, which add environmental and safety risks.
Residents in San Joaquin Valley breathe chemical pesticides, according
to new study. Backpacks equipped with special sensors identified chemical
compounds and exposure in adults and children. A new study found 22% of
adults and 10% of children who participated in an air-quality study in
California's San Joaquin Valley were breathing detectable levels of
pesticides.
Chemical Warfare - Poisoning People for Profit
Chemical Warfare
involves using the
toxic properties of
chemical substances as
weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and
biological warfare, which together make up NBC, the military acronym for
nuclear, biological, and
chemical (warfare or weapons), all of which are
considered "
weapons of mass destruction"
(WMDs). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons which are
primarily effective due to their destructive potential.
Toxins in Products
-
Nero Toxins -
Pharmaceutical
Drugs in City Water -
Pesticides -
Food Additives -
Pollution -
Treason -
War Criminals -
Neurodevelopmental DisordersHumans and the
environment are just
collateral damage and an
externality of doing business in
the name of
greed. Some manufacturers who
sell pesticides and insecticides have no
third party testing to confirm how
safe a product is. They do their own testing so they can
cherry pick data and then
manipulate weak rules and regulations to sell their poisonous product on
the market. There is no
transparency or
accountability,
just poisoned water, plants, soil, food, air and poisoned minds. Corrupt
and greedy corporations are a Burden on Society.
Burden On Society is someone who causes a
great deal of death, destruction, disability and choas to the people and
the society they live in. Lacking the necessary means to fulfill the human
rights of their citizens.
Biological
Warfare is the use of biological
toxins
or
infectious agents such as
bacteria, viruses, and fungi with the intent to kill or incapacitate
humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons (often
termed "
bio-weapons", "biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are
living organisms or replicating entities (viruses, which are not
universally considered "alive") that reproduce or replicate within their
host victims.
Entomological (insect) warfare is also considered a type of biological
weapon. This type of warfare is distinct from
nuclear warfare and chemical warfare,
which together with biological warfare make up NBC, the military
initialism for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare using weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs). None of these is a conventional weapon, which are
deployed primarily for their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential.
Bioterrorism is
terrorism involving
the
intentional release or dissemination of biological agents. These
agents are bacteria, viruses, fungi, or toxins, and may be in a naturally
occurring or a human-modified form, in much the same way in biological
warfare.
Pesticides.
Siege of Fort
Pitt is known as an early instance of biological warfare, where the
British gave items from a smallpox infirmary as gifts to Native American
emissaries with the hope of
spreading the deadly disease to nearby tribes. The effectiveness is
unknown, although it is known that the method used is inefficient compared
to respiratory transmission and these attempts to spread the disease are
difficult to differentiate from epidemics occurring from previous contacts
with colonists.
Weapon of Mass Destruction is a nuclear, radiological, chemical,
biological, or any other
weapon
that can kill and bring significant
harm to
numerous humans or cause great damage to human-made structures
(e.g., buildings), natural structures (e.g., mountains), or the biosphere.
War Crimes.
Biological Agent is a bacterium, virus, protozoan, parasite, or fungus
that can be used purposefully as a weapon in bioterrorism or biological
warfare (BW). In addition to these living and/or replicating pathogens,
Toxins and biotoxins are also
included among the bio-agents. More than 1,200 different kinds of
potentially weaponizable bio-agents have been described and studied to
date. Biological agents have the ability to adversely affect human health
in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild allergic reactions to
serious medical conditions, including serious injury, as well as serious
or permanent disability or even death. Many of these organisms are
ubiquitous in the natural environment where they are found in water, soil,
plants, or animals. Bio-agents may be amenable to "weaponization" to
render them easier to deploy or disseminate. Genetic modification may
enhance their incapacitating or lethal properties, or render them
impervious to conventional treatments or preventives. Since many
bio-agents reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for
propagation, they are also a potential danger in a wide variety of
occupational settings. (A biological agent—also called bio-agent,
biological threat agent, biological warfare agent, biological weapon, or
bioweapon).
Food Denial by Poisoning the Land, Air, Food and Water.
A systematic mass murder. Your toxic cocktail is ready, time to
Drink the
Kool-Aid, without your
consent or knowledge.
Silent Spring is an environmental science book by
Rachel Carson that was published on September 27,
1962, documenting the adverse environmental
effects caused by the indiscriminate use of pesticides. Carson accused the
chemical industry of spreading disinformation, and public officials of
accepting the industry's marketing claims unquestioningly. The book led to
a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses, and helped to inspire an
environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Food Tampering
is the intentional contamination of a food product, with the intent to
cause harm to the consumer or to a private company. Food tampering may
affect any part of the food product, such as the product itself, or it can
affect the packaging and the label.
Tampering can refer to many forms of
sabotage
but the term is often used to mean
intentional
modification of products in a way that would make them
harmful to the consumer. This threat
has prompted manufacturers to make products that are either difficult to
modify or at least difficult to modify without warning the consumer that
the product has been tampered with. Since the person making the
modification is typically long gone by the time the crime is discovered,
many of these cases are never solved. The crime is often linked with
attempts to extort money from the manufacturer, and in many cases no
contamination to a product ever takes place.
Fraud is sometimes handled
as a matter of civil law, but actual modification of products is almost
always a matter of criminal law.
Food Safety.
Infrastructure Security is the security provided to protect
infrastructure, especially critical infrastructure, such as airports,
highways rail transport, hospitals, bridges, transport hubs, network
communications, media, the electricity grid, dams, power plants, seaports,
oil refineries, and water systems. Infrastructure security seeks to limit
vulnerability of these structures and systems to sabotage, terrorism, and
contamination.
Big 5
Needs.
National Security is protection against military attack, and national
security is now widely understood to include non-military dimensions,
including the security from terrorism, crime, economic security, energy
security,
environmental security,
food security, cyber security etc.
Similarly, national security risks include, in addition to the actions of
other nation states, action by violent non-state actors,
narcotic cartels, and multinational
corporations, and also the effects of
natural disasters.
Operation Ranch Hand herbicidal warfare program during the war called
"
Operation Trail Dust". Ranch Hand involved spraying an estimated 20
million U.S. gallons (76,000 m3) of defoliants and herbicides over rural
areas of South Vietnam in an attempt to deprive the Viet Cong of
food and
vegetation cover. Areas of Laos and Cambodia were also sprayed to a lesser
extent. Nearly 20,000 sorties were flown between 1961 and 1971.
Herbicidal Warfare is the use of substances primarily designed to
destroy the plant-based ecosystem of an area.
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.
Protein that could prevent chemical warfare attack created. A novel
protein design could lead to a new generation of defensive biosensors and
treatments against weapons of mass destruction. A team that includes
Rutgers scientists has designed a synthetic protein that quickly detects
molecules of a deadly nerve agent that has been classified by the United
Nations as a weapon of mass destruction and could be used in a chemical
warfare attack. VX is an odorless, tasteless, human-made chemical compound
that is the most toxic and rapidly acting of any of the known chemical
warfare agents. It works by attacking the nervous system, causing muscle
paralysis and death via asphyxiation within minutes. Because VX is
classified as a weapon of mass destruction, countries are banned from
stockpiling it. However, nations are permitted to store small amounts for
research.
Scorched Earth is a government or corporate policy used as a military
strategy that targets anything that might be useful to people while
advancing through or withdrawing from an area. Any assets that could be
used by people may be targeted, for example food sources, transportation,
communications, industrial resources, and even the people in the area.
War Crimes.
Food
Whistleblower Protecting Food. Empowering
Whistleblowers.
World
Governments signed agreements to end Crimes against Humanity.
Association between two commonly used agrochemicals (paraquat and maneb)
and Parkinson's disease.
Monsanto is
finally found Guilty, again. Thank you to the 12 jurors who
listened attentively and critically, during long days of testimony, then
deliberated with care, and ultimately did the right thing. Thank you to
the lawyers who invested countless hours in
investigative work and trial
preparation, and who argued rationally and intelligently on behalf of the
plaintiff, science and ethics. Thank you to those media outlets and
advocacy organizations who covered the case, pored over the “
Monsanto
Papers” and took seriously their obligation to inform the public. But
most of all, we owe a huge debt of gratitude to Dewayne “Lee” Johnson, the
plaintiff in the
Dewayne Johnson v. Monsanto case. For his persistence in getting to
the bottom of what caused his non-Hodgkin lymphoma. For is bravery in
going up against one of the most powerful corporations in the world. And
for his refusal to give up, no matter the toll on his family, and on his
failing health. The jury’s decision was unanimous:
Monsanto was guilty of manufacturing and selling a product that caused
Johnson’s cancer. What’s more, the company knew its product could
cause cancer—and yet it intentionally hid that fact from Johnson and the
public. The answer to question after question, about whether Roundup
caused Johnson’s cancer, whether the product poses a danger to consumers,
whether the product’s risk was known or knowable? Yes. Yes. Yes.
The Monsanto Papers
(youtube)
Time to Face the Music. You can run, but you can't hide.
You can lie, but you can't change the truth.
Farmed Norwegian
Salmon World’s Most Toxic Food (youtube) -
UBM Media -
Baltic
Sea is one of the most polluted seas in the world.
Ethoxyquin is used as a preservative in some pet foods to slow the
development of rancidity of fats. Health consequences from these effects
are not known.
Food Fraud
can include deceptive labeling, the lack of food purity, and more.
According to the
U.S.
Pharmacopeial Convention, a critically important entity protecting
food and drug purity, the amount of fake ingredients has increased by 60
percent in the last year.
Food Fraud Initiative
-
European Food
Safety Authority -
False
Advertising.
Counterfeit Consumer Goods is the intentional adulteration of food
with cheaper ingredients for economic gain.
Body Burden - Neurotoxins
Adverse Health Effect is defined as the
causation,
promotion, facilitation and/or exacerbation of a structural and/or
functional abnormality, with the implication that the
abnormality
produced has the potential of
lowering the quality of life, contributing
to a
disabling illness,
or leading to a
premature
death.
Body Burden Testing -
Body Affects the
Mind -
Cumulative Effects Disease Burden
-
Lead -
Pesticides -
Toxins -
Pollution -
Burden on Society
Global Burden of Disease quantifies health loss from hundreds of
diseases, injuries, and risk factors, so that health systems can be
improved and disparities eliminated.
Global
Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors.
American life expectancy is now at its lowest in nearly two decades.
Value of Life is an economic
value
used to quantify the benefit of
avoiding a fatality. It is also referred to as the cost of life,
value of preventing a fatality, implied
cost of averting a fatality or ICAF, and
value of
a statistical life, which is the willingness to pay to avoid the
risk of a fatal injury increases proportionately with growing risk. When
an individual is willing to pay $1,000 to reduce the annual risk of death
by one in 10,000, that individual is said to have a VSL of $10 million. In
social and political scieces, it is the marginal cost of death prevention
in a certain class of circumstances. In many studies the value also
includes the quality of life, the expected life time remaining, as well as
the earning potential of a given person especially for an after-the-fact
payment in a wrongful death claim lawsuit.
Damage to the Brain and Body
Endocrine Disruptor are
chemicals that, at certain
doses, can interfere with
endocrine
or
hormone systems. These disruptions can
cause
cancerous tumors,
birth defects, and other
developmental disorders. Any
system in the body controlled by hormones can be derailed by hormone
disruptors.
Neurotoxin are toxins that are
poisonous or
destructive to
nerve tissue, causing
neurotoxicity or
brain damage.
Neurotoxicity is when exposure to natural or artificial
toxic substances, which are called neurotoxins, alters the normal activity
of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue.
This can eventually disrupt or even
kill
neurons, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and
other parts of the
nervous system.
Blocking Empathic Synaptic
Connections -
Third Eye
Blindness -
Fluoride -
Babies
Are corrupt corporations intentionally
damaging peoples ability to
feel empathy by
poisoning water and
food? Is it because people who lack empathy become
republican voters and
haters? Is this just
another method of
divide and
conquer?
Neurological Disorder are diseases of the brain, spine and the nerves
that connect them. There are more than 600 diseases of the nervous system,
such as brain tumors, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease and stroke as well as
less familiar ones such as frontotemporal dementia.
Latest science shows endocrine disrupting chemicals in plastics,
pesticides, and other sources pose health threats globally. A report
from the world's leading scientific and medical experts on hormone-related
health conditions raises new concerns about the profound
threats to human health
from endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that are ubiquitous in our
surroundings and everyday lives. Everyday exposures to EDCs in the
environment may be linked to increasing rates of infertility, diabetes,
immune deficiencies, and other serious conditions; Highly Hazardous
Pesticides pose ongoing
threats.
Genotoxicity describes the property of chemical agents that
damages
the genetic information within a cell causing
mutations, which
may lead to cancer. While
genotoxicity is often confused with mutagenicity, all mutagens are
genotoxic, whereas not all genotoxic substances are mutagenic. The
alteration can have direct or indirect effects on the DNA: the induction
of mutations, mistimed event activation, and direct
DNA damage leading to
mutations. The permanent, heritable changes can affect either somatic
cells of the organism or germ cells to be passed on to future generations.
Cells prevent expression of the genotoxic mutation by either DNA repair or
apoptosis; however, the damage may not always be fixed leading to
mutagenesis.
1.1 Billion Pounds of Dangerous Pesticides
are used in the U.S. Annually.
Apoptosis -
Cell Death.
Biocide
is a diverse group of
poisonous substances including preservatives,
insecticides, disinfectants, and pesticides used for the control of
organisms that are harmful to human or animal health or that cause damage
to natural or manufactured products. A chemical substance or microorganism
intended to destroy, deter, render harmless, or exert a controlling effect
on any harmful organism by chemical or biological means.
Hormesis is any
process in a cell or organism that exhibits a biphasic response to
exposure to increasing amounts of a substance or condition. Within the
hormetic zone, there is generally a favorable biological response to low
exposures to toxins and other stressors.
Stressor is a
chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external
stimulus or an event that
causes
stress to an organism.
Psychologically speaking, a stressor can be events or environments that an
individual would consider demanding, challenging, and or threaten the
individual's safety. Stressors have physical, chemical and mental
responses inside of the body. Physical stressors produce mechanical
stresses on skin, bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles and nerves that cause
tissue deformation and in extreme cases tissue failure.
Chemical stresses
also produce biomechanical responses associated with metabolism and tissue
repair. Physical stressors may produce pain and impair work performance.
Chronic pain and
impairment requiring medical attention may result from
extreme physical stressors or if there is not sufficient recovery time
between successive exposures.
Stressors may also affect mental function
and performance. One possible mechanism involves stimulation of the
hypothalamus, CRF (corticotropin release factor) -> pituitary gland
releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) -> adrenal cortex secretes
various stress hormones (e.g., cortisol) -> stress hormones (30 varieties)
travel in the blood stream to relevant organs, e.g., glands, heart,
intestines -> flight-or-fight response. Between this flow there is an
alternate path that can be taken after the stressor is transferred to the
hypothalamus, which leads to the sympathetic nervous system. After which,
the adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine. Mental and social stressors
may affect behavior and how individuals respond to physical and chemical
stressor.
Horizontal Gene Transfer is the movement of genetic
material between unicellular and/or
multicellular organisms other than by
the ("vertical") transmission of
DNA from parent to
offspring. HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms.
Chronic Kidney Disease is progressive loss in
kidney
function over a period of months or years.
Coeliac Disease is a long term
autoimmune disorder
primarily affecting the
small intestine that occurs in people who are
genetically predisposed.
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma is a group of
blood cancers
that includes all types of lymphoma except Hodgkin's lymphomas. Symptoms
include enlarged lymph nodes, fever,
night sweats, weight loss, and
tiredness. Other symptoms may include bone pain, chest pain, or itchiness.
Some forms are slow growing while others are fast growing.
Congenital Disorder is a condition existing at or
before birth regardless of cause.
Insecticide Runoff Maps and Charts -
Erosion
Slow Poisoning of India (youtube)
Our Daily Poison (2011) (1:52)
- An in-depth investigation into everyday products and the system charged
with regulating them. Robin digs through the United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and the European Food.
Pesticides,
additives, food coloring, packaging.
Scientific studies that have been ignored, and
some studies they use are flawed, no reasoning.
What is Natural?
-
What is Healthy?
Chemical Exposure Linked to Health Care Costs.
Cancer took more than 8.7 million years of life and $94.4 billion in lost
earnings among people ages 16 to 84 in the United States in 2015.
Population of US Cancer Survivors Grows to Nearly 17 Million. Many
Cancer Survivors Struggle to Pay For Care.
Plastics pose threat to human health, report shows.
Plastics contain and leach
hazardous chemicals, including endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that
threaten human health. EDCs are chemicals that disturb the body's hormone
systems and can cause cancer, diabetes, reproductive disorders, and
neurological impairments of developing fetuses and children. The report
describes a wealth of evidence supporting direct cause-and-effect links
between the toxic chemical additives in plastics and specific health
impacts to the endocrine system. Conservative estimates point to more than
a thousand manufactured chemicals in use today that are EDCs. Known EDCs
that leach from plastics and threaten health include bisphenol A and
related chemicals, flame retardants, phthalates, per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances (PFAS), dioxins, UV-stabilizers, and toxic metals such as lead
and cadmium. Plastic containing EDCs is used extensively in packaging,
construction, flooring, food production and packaging, cookware, health
care, children's toys, leisure goods, furniture, home electronics,
textiles, automobiles and cosmetics. Key findings in the report include:
One hundred and forty four chemicals or chemical groups known to be
hazardous to human health are actively used in plastics for functions
varying from antimicrobial activity to colorants, flame retardants,
solvents, UV-stabilizers, and plasticizers. Exposure can occur during the
entire life span of plastic products, from the manufacturing process to
consumer contact, recycling, to waste management and disposal. EDC
exposure is a universal problem. Testing of human samples consistently
shows nearly all people have EDCs in their bodies. Microplastics contain
chemical additives, which can leach out of the
microplastic and expose the
population. They can also bind and accumulate toxic chemicals from the
surrounding environment, such as seawater and sediment, functioning as
carriers for toxic compounds. Bioplastics/biodegradable plastics, promoted
as more ecological than plastics, contain similar chemical additives as
conventional plastics and also have endocrine-disrupting effects.
COVID-19 spike proteins may cause neurological issues. COVID-19 virus
enters the brain. The spike proteins S1 protein alone can cause
brain fog. Since
the spike protein enters the brain, the virus also is likely to cross into
the brain. The S1 protein likely causes the brain to release cytokines and
inflammatory products. The intense
inflammation caused
by the
COVID-19
infection is called a
cytokine storm. The immune system, upon seeing the virus and its
proteins, overreacts in its attempt to kill the invading virus. The
infected person is left with
brain fog, fatigue
and other
cognitive
issues. S1 protein in SARS-CoV2 and the gp 120 protein in HIV-1
function similarly. glycoproteins -- proteins that have a lot of sugars on
them, hallmarks of proteins that bind to other receptors. Both these
proteins function as the arms and hand for their viruses by grabbing onto
other receptors. Both cross the
blood-brain
barrier and S1, like gp120, is likely toxic to brain tissues.
Body Burden Testing
Bio-Monitoring is the measurement of the
body burden
of
toxic chemical compounds, elements,
or their metabolites, in biological substances.
Years of Potential Life
Lost -
Disease Burden
What is a Body Burden? -
Cocktail Effect
-
Damage to the Brain and Body
Acceptable Daily Intake is a measure of the
amount of a specific substance (originally applied for a food additive,
later also for a residue of a veterinary drug or pesticide) in food or
drinking water that can be ingested (orally) on a daily basis over a
lifetime without an appreciable health risk. ADIs are expressed usually in
milligrams (of the substance) per kilograms of body weight per day.
Heavy
Metal Test Analysis (PDF)
Infectious Diseases Emergency Preparedness Plan
Household Chemicals Cancer Concern
National Industrial Chemicals Notification and
Assessment Scheme is designed to help protect
workers, the public and the environment from the harmful effects of
industrial chemicals. It does so by making
risk assessment and safety
information on chemicals widely available and providing recommendations
for their safe use. NICNAS also informs importers and manufacturers of
their legal responsibilities.
Toxins and Child Birth
-
Vitals
Processed
Food Warnings -
Food Safety -
Natural
Economic Injury Level (EIL)
The level of pest infestation below which the cost of
further reducing the pest population exceeds the
additional revenue or value of other benefits such
reduction would
achieve.
Pollution -
Sanitation
Consumer Confidence Report -
Pacific Institute
97% of water on earth is undrinkable. (
Desalination)
Why are the Feds allowing industries to Pollute
the Nations Underground Water Supply?
Environmental Protection Agency.
Since 2004, the
water provided to more
than
49 million Americans has contained illegal
concentrations of chemicals like arsenic or radioactive
substances like uranium, as well
as dangerous bacteria
often found in sewage.
But I still don't buy bottled water because that
just
adds to the problem. I use a water filter
and a reusable
water bottle. We definitely
have to make the
EPA more
responsible for
their failures if we want things to
improve.
Organic Pesticides - Safe and Healthy
Green Pesticides is a broad-based approach that
integrates practices for economic control of pests.
IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level,
which is the smallest number of insects or amount of injury that will
cause yield losses equal to the insect management costs.
Economic threshold is the density of a pest at which a control
treatment will provide an economic return. The pest density at which
management action should be taken to prevent an increasing pest population
from reaching the economic injury level, meaning not enough profit for
greedy corporations who are already getting subsidized. If society is
going to subsidize a farmer, it should be a farmer who uses safe
pesticides and safe herbicides.
Integrated Pest Management (wiki)
Bio-Pesticide is a contraction of biological
pesticides, which include several types of pest management intervention
through predatory, parasitic, or chemical relationships. The term has been
associated historically with biological control - and by implication - the
manipulation of living organisms.
Organic Pest Control
Biological Pest Control is a method of controlling pests
such as insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms. It
relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms,
but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an
important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
A Guide to Organic Pest-Free Gardening -
Info-Graph (image)
Organic foods: Are they safer? More nutritious?
Organically Grown Food Pesticides
Learn to Grow Organic Food
Non-Pesticide Management describes various
pest-control techniques which do not rely on pesticides. It is used in
organic production of foodstuff, as well as in other situations in which
the introduction of toxins is undesirable. Instead of the use of synthetic
toxins, pest control is achieved by biological means.
Plant Diseases -
Fertilizers
Rose Essential Oil: A safe pesticide for organic agriculture.
Researchers find that rose essential oil activates tomato defense genes
and attracts herbivore predators that protect the plants.
Organic Weed Spray: 1 gallon of water, 2 cups of Epson salt,
1/4 cup of dish soap (original blue dawn)
Weed killer: This is as easy as filling a spray bottle with white
vinegar and adding a teaspoon of dish soap. Be careful
when spraying this solution because it can kill your
plants too.
Insect repellent: In a large pot, mix two heads of crushed garlic, 3 cups
of crushed mint leaves, 2 teaspoons of cayenne pepper
and 12 cups of water, and bring to a boil. Let the
mixture sit overnight and then strain it into a couple
of spray bottles, adding a few squirts of dish soap to
each. This should yield 12 cups of liquid..
Biodynamics Non-Chemical Agricultural
Biodynamic Agriculture is a form of
alternative agriculture very similar to organic farming, but it includes
various esoteric concepts.
Electronic Pest Control
is the use of any of the several types of electrically powered devices
designed to repel or eliminate pests, usually rodents or insects.
Sound waves as a Pesticide
Flowers Instead of Pesticides (PDF)
Hedge
is a line of closely spaced shrubs and tree species, planted and trained
to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between
neighboring properties.
Black Eyed Peas could help eliminate need for fertilizer. Black eyed
peas' ability to attract beneficial bacteria isn't diminished by modern
farming practices, new UC Riverside research shows. Planting it in
rotation with other crops could help growers avoid the need for costly,
environmentally damaging fertilizers.
IntercroppingCrops that kill
pests by shutting off their genes. Plants are among many eukaryotes
that can 'turn off' one or more of their genes by using a process
called
RNA interference to block
protein translation. Researchers are now weaponizing this by engineering
crops to produce specific RNA fragments that, upon ingestion by insects,
initiate RNA interference to shut down a target gene essential for life or
reproduction, killing or sterilizing the insects.
Impact of weather and well-timed cultural
management techniques on organic weed control. Careful rotary
hoeing can improve crop competitiveness by reducing and delaying weed
emergence relative to the crop. Delayed planting allows time for
destruction of early emerging weeds and reduces emerged weed populations.
Diverse crop rotations can dampen and diversify weed populations and
improve soil fertility.
Enko Chem
discovers and develops sustainable solutions for farmers to protect their
crops from pests and diseases. By applying the latest drug discovery and
development approaches from pharma to plants, Enko is bringing an
innovation model to agriculture and meeting farmers’ evolving needs. Enko
Chem has raised $140 million to use artificial intelligence in developing
new herbicides and pesticides to improve farm yields.
Farm Cat
is a domestic cat, usually of mixed breed, that lives primarily
out-of-doors, in a feral or semi-feral condition on agricultural
properties, usually sheltering in outbuildings. They eat assorted vermin
such as rodents and other small animals that live in or around
outbuildings and farm fields. The need for the farm cat may have been the
original reason cats were domesticated, to keep rodents from consuming or
contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption. They are
still commonly kept for their effectiveness at controlling undesired
vermin found on farms and ranches, which would otherwise eat or
contaminate crops, especially grain or feed stocks.
Cat Predation on Wildlife. Cats hunt small prey, and both feral and
domesticated cats prey on wildlife. This is sometimes seen as a desirable
phenomenon, such as in the case of barn cats and other cats kept for the
purposes of pest control. In other cases, the effect of cats on wildlife
is met with concern. Cats that live in the wild or Domestic indoor pets
allowed to roam outdoors
kill from 1.4 billion to
as many as 3.7 billion birds in the continental U.S. each year,
says a new study that escalates a decades-old debate over the feline
threat to native animals.
Sustainability
Worm pheromones protect major crops. Protecting crops from pests and
pathogens
without using toxic pesticides has
been a longtime goal of farmers. Researchers have found that compounds
from an unlikely source - microscopic soil roundworms - could achieve this
aim. These compounds helped protect major crops from various pathogens,
and thus have potential to save billions of dollars and increase
agricultural sustainability around the world.
Films about Water
Blue Gold: World
Water Wars (wiki) -
Website
Poisoned Water - Frontline (2009 PBS)
Flow: For Love of Water (youtube)
TROM - 2.11 Food and Water (youtube)
Tapped the Film -
Website -
Tap water costs 10,000 times less then
bottled water.
Bolivia Water Wars (youtube)
Cochabamba Protests (wiki)
Water Privatization
is the
private ownership
of water distribution and sanitation.
The Great Culling: Our Water (youtube)
Fluoride Alert
FIRE WATER: Australia's Industrial Fluoridation Disgrace (youtube)
Water Fluoridation Videos
Fluoride Facts -
Fluoride in Water -
Fluoride Poisoning
TEDxPotomac
- Alexandra Cousteau - Connected by Water (youtube)
More Documentaries -
Dams
Water Wars 12/01/2014 | 55 min. -
The nation of Bangladesh is prey to every threat from
water known to man.
Position Based Fluids Demonstration
(youtube)
City Water - Public Water Supply
Public Water System
refers to certain
utilities and organizations providing
drinking water.
Water Supply is the provision of water by
public utilities commercial organizations, community endeavors or by
individuals, usually via a
system of pumps and pipes.
Irrigation is
covered separately.
History of Municipal Drinking Water (wiki) -
Filtration -
Wells -
Rain
Tap Water Executive Summary (EWG)
New water filtration system to the U.S. that will help remove forever
chemicals. Once completed, the Suspended Ion Exchange plant in Tampa
is expected to be the first in the U.S. and largest in the world. It will
cost $200 million and should be done by 2032.
Toxins.
Switch to Green Wastewater Infrastructure could reduce emissions and
provide huge savings according to new research. Researchers have shown
that a transition to green wastewater-treatment approaches in the U.S.
that leverages the potential of carbon-financing could save a staggering
$15.6 billion and just under 30 million tons of CO2-equivalent emissions
over 40 years.
Pipeline Transport is the transportation of goods or material through
a pipe. The latest data from 2014 gives a total of slightly less than
2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipeline in 120 countries of the world.
The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 75% of
all pipeline were in these three countries.
Infrastructure -
Waste Management -
Fluid Mechanics
A better way to detect underground water leaks. Researchers propose a
new way to locate water leaks within the tangle of aging pipes found
beneath many cities. The improvement could save time, money and billions
of gallons of water. The researchers built upon a technique known as the
water hammer test -- the industry standard for
predicting the location of leaks. The test involves suddenly shutting off
flow through a pipe and using sensors to gather data about how the
resulting shock wave, or "water hammer," propagates. Tartakovsky and
Alawadhi propose a new way to assimilate this data into a mathematical
model to narrow down the location of a leak.
Aqueduct is a watercourse
constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the term aqueduct is
used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other
structures used for this purpose. The term aqueduct also often refers
specifically to a bridge on an artificial watercourse.
Irrigation -
Dry Land Farming.
Aqueduct bridge is for conveying water, called aqueducts or water
bridges are constructed to convey watercourses across gaps such as valleys or ravines.
Viaduct is a bridge composed of several
small spans for crossing a valley, gorge, marshland or forming a flyover.
Reservoir is an enlarged natural or
artificial lake, storage pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock
to store water. Reservoirs can be created by controlling a stream that
drains an existing body of water. They can also be constructed in river
valleys using a dam. Alternately, a reservoir can be built by excavating
flat ground and/or constructing retaining walls and levees.
Lakes -
Water - EPA
Safety Concerns -
Drinking Water Quality Alerts (EPA)
Water Treatment
is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use.
The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river
flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being
safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes contaminants
and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the
water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
City Water
Treatment Process -
Drinking Water Treatment Plant (youtube)
Water Purification
is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce
water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is disinfected for human
consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be designed
for a variety of other purposes, including fulfilling the requirements of
medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. The
methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation,
and distillation; biological processes such as slow sand filters or
biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and
chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet
light. Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi,
as well as reducing the amount of a range of dissolved and particulate
material derived from the surfaces that come from runoff due to rain.
Water Treatment methods may unintentionally generate Harmful Chemicals.
Water treatment process converts commonly used chemicals into harmful
compounds that affect cellular function and metabolism, study finds.
New water treatment method can generate green energy. Researchers have
designed
micromotors
that move around on their own to purify wastewater. The process creates
ammonia, which can serve as a green energy source. Now, an AI method will
be used to tune the motors to achieve the best possible results.
Researchers from the Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ)
have built a micromotor covered with the chemical compound laccase, which
accelerates the conversion of urea found in polluted water into ammonia
when it comes into contact with the motor.
Sanitation
refers to public health conditions related to
clean
drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta
and
sewage. Preventing
human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with
soap. Sanitation system aim to protect human health by providing a clean
environment that will stop the transmission of
disease, especially
through the fecal-oral route. For example,
diarrhea, a main cause of
malnutrition
and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through sanitation. There
are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that
have low levels of sanitation, such as ascariasis (a type of intestinal
worm infection or helminthiasis), cholera, hepatitis, polio,
schistosomiasis, trachoma, to name just a few.
American
Water Works Association
Nebraska Water Center | University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Ebb and Flow are two phases of the tide or any
similar movement of water. The ebb is the outgoing phase, when the tide
drains away from the shore; and the flow is the incoming phase when water
rises again. The terms are also common in figurative use.
Water Purification Process - City Water
The first step of
water purification is called
Coagulation. Like blood forming a scab, the alum helps to
chunk up the organic material in the water, so it can fall to
the bottom of the tank. It works because alum—also known as
Aluminum Sulfate—has a positive charge, whereas the organic
gunk floating in the water tends to be negatively charged. They
stick together and form a solid, which falls out of the water in
a process called
Sedimentation. Then the now clear water goes through the
filtration
step, where it wends its way through several layers of sand,
gravel, and charcoal. This removes much of the smaller
particles. In the last step, it’s treated with
Chloramines to kill bacteria and other microorganisms,
giving the water its faintly stinky swimming pool smell. The
techniques to treat its drinking water are used around the
world, and those methods have proven successful so far.
EPA Water Treatment Guidelines -
Waste Water Treatment
Pharmaceutical Drugs in Public Drinking Water
Sanitary Sewer Overflow is a condition in which untreated
sewage is discharged from a sanitary sewer into the environment prior to
reaching sewage treatment facilities. When caused by rainfall it is also
known as wet
weather overflow. It is primarily meaningful in developed
countries, which have extensive treatment facilities. Frequent causes of SSO spills include: Blockage of sewer lines. Infiltration/Inflow of
excessive stormwater into sewer lines during heavy rainfall. Malfunction
of pumping station lifts or electrical power failure. Broken sewer lines.
EPA.
Storm Water Management -
Landscaping -
Erosion
Combined Sewer is a sewage collection system of pipes and
tunnels designed to also collect surface runoff. Combined sewers can cause
serious water pollution problems during combined sewer overflow (CSO)
events when wet weather flows exceed the sewage treatment plant capacity.
This type of sewer design is no longer used in building new communities
(because current design separates sanitary sewers from runoff), but many
older cities continue to operate combined sewers.
Toilets (types)
Combined Sewage Overflows (CSO's)
City Water Infrastructure
They are supposed to test for a wide gamut of potentially
harmful contaminants. Some of these include naturally occurring
microorganisms, such as
Cryptosporidium and
Coliform Bacteria; metals such as
Barium,
Copper,
Lead;
and
Herbicides
such as atrazine. Drinking water treatment plants in the U.S.
are supposed to publish a water quality report every year,
noting contaminates that were present above the detection level.
In total, the EPA requires drinking water treatment plants to
test for almost 90 different contaminants. But noticeably absent
from this list are any type of
drug
or pharmaceutical.
Drinking Water Treatment Plant (youtube)
3D data
visualization and mapping of the water infrastructure of San
Francisco
2.5 billion people around the world currently lack access to
improved sanitation, and 27 percent of urban dwellers in
developing nations do not have access to piped water in their
homes. Every day, around
2 million tons of human waste are disposed of in water
channels.
The World Health Organization reports that
3.4 million people—mainly children—die each year from
water-related diseases like cholera, dysentery, or typhoid.
The EPA estimates anywhere from
23,000 to 75,000 overflows of sanitary-sewer systems each year
in the U.S.
The right infrastructure becomes critical in preserving water
quality and preventing a shortage of clean drinking water.
Unfortunately, most of the technology employed by cities today
lags behind the latest innovations.
Toilets
-
Water Filters
Microwave treatment is an inexpensive way to clean heavy metals from
treated sewage. A team of researchers studying new methods to remove
toxic heavy metals from biosolids -- the solid waste left over after
sewage treatment -- found the key is a brief spin through a microwave. The
method removed three times the amount of lead from biosolids compared to
conventional means and could reduce the total cost of processing by more
than 60 percent, making it a possible engineering solution to help produce
fertilizer and allow more people to live with clean soil and water.
Aquifer - Underground Water
Aquifer is an
underground layer of water-bearing
permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand,
or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
Fracking -
Droughts -
Dry Land.
Ogallala Aquifer is a shallow
water
table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay and gravel located
beneath the Great Plains in the United States.
One of the world's largest
aquifers, it underlies an area of approximately 174,000 sq mi (450,000 km2)
in portions of eight states (South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Colorado,
Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas).
Groundwater is water held underground in the soil or in pores and
crevices in rock. Groundwater is
the water present beneath Earth's surface
in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A
unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can
yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or
fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is
called the
water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may
discharge from the surface naturally at
springs and
seeps, and can form
oases or
wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural,
municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction
wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is
hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.
Storm
Water.
Water Table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. The zone
of saturation is where the pores and fractures of the ground are saturated
with water. It can also be simply explained as the depth below which the
ground is saturated.
Watershed -
Water
Use.
Scientists map huge undersea fresh-water aquifer trapped in porous
sediments lying below the salty ocean off U.S. Northeast. The
study suggests that such aquifers probably lie off many other coasts
worldwide, and could provide desperately needed water for arid areas that
are now in danger of running out.
Wells.
Earth's tilt has changed by 31.5 inches or 80 centimeters between 1993
and 2010 because of the amount of groundwater humans have pumped from the
planet's interior. Humans have pumped so much groundwater from Earth that
its tilt has been affected. Between this time period, humans have sucked
out
2,150 gigatons of water from natural
reservoirs. Owing to this enormous displacement of water, the
Earth's axis has been affected, scientists say.
What about Oil pumped from the
ground?
Scientists map loss of groundwater storage around the world. A new
study maps, for the first time, the permanent loss of aquifer storage
capacity occurring globally. By combining publicly available data with the
predictive capabilities of computer modeling, they found global aquifer
storage capacity is disappearing at a rate of approximately 17 km3 per
year (about the size of 7,000 Great Pyramids of Giza). This loss of
groundwater storage is permanent, forever reducing the amount of water
that can be captured and stored. Approximately 75% of this subsidence is
occurring over cropland and urban regions, underscoring the importance of
improving groundwater management globally.
Human activities have an intense impact on Earth's deep subsurface fluid
flow. Hydrologists predict human-induced underground fluid fluxes to
rise with climate change mitigation strategies like carbon sequestration.
The impact of human activities -- such as greenhouse gas emissions and
deforestation -- on Earth's surface have been well-studied.
The life below our feet: Team discovers microbes thriving in groundwater
and producing oxygen in the dark. A survey of groundwater samples
drawn from aquifers beneath more than 80,000 square miles of Canadian
prairie reveals ancient ground waters harbor not only diverse and active
microbial communities, but also unexpectedly large numbers of microbial
cells. Strikingly, some of these microbes seem to produce 'dark oxygen'
(in the absence of sunlight) in such abundance that the oxygen may nourish
not only those microbes, but may leak into the environment and support
other oxygen-reliant microbes that can't produce it themselves.
Terrestrial Water Storage can be defined as
the summation of all water on the land surface and in the subsurface. It
includes surface soil moisture, root zone soil moisture, groundwater,
snow, ice, water stored in the vegetation, river and lake water.
Overdrafting is the process of extracting groundwater beyond the
equilibrium yield of an aquifer. Groundwater is one of the largest sources
of fresh water and is found underground. Groundwater depletion is
comparable to a bank account in which more money is withdrawn than
deposited. There are two sets of yields: safe yield and sustainable yield.
Safe yield is the amount of groundwater that can be withdrawn over a
period of time without exceeding the long-term recharge rate or affecting
the aquifer integrity. Sustainable yield is the amount of water extraction
that can be sustained indefinitely without negative hydrological impacts,
taking into account both recharge rate and surface water impacts. There
are two types of aquifers: confined and unconfined. In confined aquifers,
there is an overbearing layer called aquitard, which contains impermeable
materials through which groundwater cannot be extracted. In unconfined
aquifers, there is no aquitard, and groundwater can be freely extracted
from the surface. Extracting groundwater from unconfined aquifers is like
borrowing the water: it has to be recharged at a proper rate. Recharge can
happen through artificial recharge and natural recharge. Insufficient
recharge can lead to depletion. Overdraft occurs where the average annual
amount of groundwater extraction exceeds the long-term average annual
supply of water to the basin. Effects of overdraft can include seawater
intrusion, land subsidence, groundwater depletion, and/or chronic lowering
of groundwater levels.
Reservoir is an enlarged lake behind a
dam.
Such a dam may be either artificial, usually built to
store fresh water, or it may be a natural formation.
Reservoirs need
to be as full as possible in order to provide water for people and
wildlife, but reservoirs also need to be half full to ensure they can
safely
handle the runoff from major storms. Throughout
the late fall and winter, most reservoirs are required to release water if
they get too full, sometimes emptying out almost by half. That's because
the empty space is crucial if an intense storm hits. Reservoirs collect
runoff and prevent it from flooding downstream cities. Still, in some
years, reservoirs preemptively empty out with little need if no major
storms materialize. That means valuable water is lost for potentially
drier months ahead. If a dam is overwhelmed, potentially hundreds of
thousands of people risk being flooded downstream. Stay too empty, and
cities and agriculture run short of water when a
drought hits. So reservoirs need
Forecast Informed Reservoir
Operations and A Flexible and Adaptive Water Management Approach.
Karst
is a landscape underlain by limestone which has been eroded by
dissolution, producing ridges, towers, fissures, sinkholes and other
characteristic landforms. Karst is a topography formed from the
dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It
is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves.
It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as
quartzite, given the right conditions.
Pollutants rapidly seeping into drinking water. When carbonate rock
weathers, karst areas are formed, from which around a quarter of the
world's population obtains its drinking water. Scientists have been
studying how quickly pollutants can reach groundwater supplies in karst
areas and how this could affect the quality of drinking water. Previous
continental or global hydrologic model applications have focused mainly on
the occurrence of floods or droughts and the general availability of
drinking water. However, scientists have predominantly neglected water
quality as an important factor for the potability of water on these large
scales, in particular how quickly pollutants can seep from the earth's
surface into the groundwater through cracks or fissures, like from
fracking.
Peru
is reviving a pre-Incan technology for water. Peru passed a series of
national laws requiring water utilities to invest a percentage of their
customers' bills in "
natural
infrastructure". These funds – called Mechanismos de Retribucion por
Servicios Ecosistemicos (Mechanisms of Reward for Ecosystem Services) or
MRSE – go to nature-based water interventions, such as restoring ancient
human systems that work with nature, protecting high-altitude wetlands and
forests, or introducing rotational grazing to protect grasslands. Before,
it was considered a misuse of public funds if utilities invested in the
watershed. Now it's required. The people who live here are comuneros:
members of an agricultural collective. They use water canals called amunas
– a Quechua word meaning "to retain" – to divert wet-season flows from
mountain streams and route them to natural infiltration basins. The
strategy, invented by an ancient people called the Huari (WAR-i), is still
practiced here and in a few other Andean villages. Because the water moves
more slowly underground as it travels through gravel and soil, it emerges
downslope from springs months later, when the comuneros collect it to
water their crops. Because much of their irrigation soaks into the ground
and eventually makes its way back to the rivers that supply Lima,
repairing abandoned amunas scattered throughout the highlands could extend
water into the dry season for city dwellers too. Hence Sedapal's interest.
Groundwater Recharge is a
hydrologic process where water moves
downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method
through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the
water table surface. Recharge occurs both naturally (through the
water
cycle) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater
recharge"), where rainwater and or reclaimed water is routed to the
subsurface.
Rain Water Harvesting -
Ground Water Recharging
Putting water back into the aquifers. Groundwater Recharge Pilot
Project to Capture Flood Waters for Underground Storage. Capturing
available precipitation, stormwater, or floodwaters to recharge depleted
groundwater basins need to be ready to capture high flows when they are
available during each wet season.
Governor Newsom Issues Executive
Order to
Use Floodwater to Recharge and Store Groundwater. California has
always experienced dramatic swings from drought to floodwaters. Those
swings are expected to become more severe as temperatures rise due to
human-caused climate change. Cutting groundwater use could be painful.
A study by the Public Policy Institute of California last year found that
an estimated 500,000 acres of farmland would have to go unplanted in the
southern Central Valley over the next 20 years to help restore water
underground. That's even with increased capturing of storm waters in a
year like this. The region produces billions of dollars in almonds,
pistachios, dairy and other produce every year.
Wells - Well Water
Water Well is an excavation or structure
created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or
drilling to access
groundwater in underground
aquifers. The well water is drawn by a
pump, or
using containers, such as buckets, that are raised mechanically or by
hand. Wells were
first constructed at least eight thousand years ago and
historically vary in construction from a simple scoop in the sediment of a
dry watercourse to the stepwells of India, the qanats of Iran, and the
shadoofs and sakiehs of India. Placing a lining in the well shaft helps
create stability and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as
far as the Iron Age.
Rain Water Harvesting
-
Ground Water Recharging
Well
is a
hole that is dug into the Earth to get water. A qanat is an ancient
complex water well system used in the Middle East. Wells can be as simple
as a hole that a bucket on a rope can be lowered into, or very complex
with pipes and high-powered pumps to get the water out. Most cities that
are not close to fresh water lakes or rivers get their water from wells.
It is important to be careful what rubbish is put into the ground near a
well. If something toxic is put in the ground, it could end up in the
water from the well and make people sick. Water is a problem for many
African countries. Many charities are helping to build wells in local
villages to help stop lengthy travel to distant water supply. A well only
works if underneath there is an aquifer which feeds it.
Aquifers
-
Fresh Water Well -
Thirst Project
Private Water Wells -
Human Powered Well Pumps
Well Water Contamination -
Private Wells Diseases
Around 40 million people
rely on domestic wells in America.
Artesian Well is
a well that brings groundwater to the surface without pumping because it
is under pressure within a body of rock and/or sediment known as an
aquifer. When trapped water in an aquifer is
surrounded by layers of impermeable rock or clay, which apply positive
pressure to the water, it is known as an artesian aquifer. If a well were
to be sunk into an artesian aquifer, water in the well-pipe would rise to
a height corresponding to the point where
hydrostatic
equilibrium is reached. A well drilled into such an aquifer is called
an artesian well. If water reaches the ground surface under the natural
pressure of the aquifer, the well is termed a flowing artesian well. The
Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the
largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2
million km2. By analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep
underground, hydrogeologists have been able to determine that water
extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old.
Surface Well is supplied by water from
surface water. The artesian well, on the other hand, reaches the deep
water veins. Surface wells are not as deep and are therefore closer to
ground level, there is a higher risk of contamination. A surface well can
be dug by hand. The well can be lined with stones, bricks, tile, or other
material to prevent collapse.
Driven wells
are constructed by driving a small-diameter pipe into shallow
water-bearing sand or gravel.
Spring Water.
Spring is a natural exit point at which
groundwater
emerges out of the aquifer and flows onto the top of the Earth's crust (pedosphere)
to become
surface water. It is a component of the
hydrosphere as well as a part of the
water cycle.
Springs have long been important for humans as a source of
fresh water, especially in arid regions which have
relatively little annual rainfall.
Fossil Water or
paleowater is an
ancient body of water that has been contained in some undisturbed space,
typically groundwater in an aquifer, for millennia. Other types of fossil
water can include subglacial lakes, such as Antarctica's Lake Vostok.
Heavy
Water is a form of water that contains a larger than normal amount of
the hydrogen isotope deuterium (2H or D, also known as heavy hydrogen),
rather than the common hydrogen-1 isotope (1H or H, also called protium)
that makes up most of the
hydrogen in normal water. The presence of
deuterium gives the chemical different nuclear properties, and the
increase of mass gives it different physical and chemical properties
compared to normal "light water". (deuterium oxide, 2H2O, D2O).
Hard
Water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft
water"). Hard water is formed when water percolates through deposits of
limestone and chalk which are
largely made
up of
calcium and
magnesium carbonates. Hard drinking water may have moderate health
benefits, but can pose critical and grieveous problems in industrial
settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in
boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment that handles water. In
domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by
a lack of foam formation when soap is agitated in
water, and by the formation of limescale in kettles and water
heaters. Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly
used to reduce hard water's adverse effects.
Filters.
Soft
Water is
surface water that contains low concentrations of ions and in
particular is
low in ions of
calcium
and magnesium. Soft water naturally occurs where
rainfall
and the drainage basin of rivers are formed of hard, impervious and
calcium poor rocks. Examples in the UK include Snowdonia in Wales and
the Western Highlands in Scotland. The term may also be used to describe
water that has been produced by a water softening process although such
water is more correctly termed softened water. In these cases the
water may also contain elevated levels of sodium and/or bicarbonate ions.
Because soft water has few calcium ions, there is no inhibition of the
lathering action of soaps and no soap scum is formed in normal washing.
Similarly, soft water produces no calcium deposits in water heating
systems. Water that is not soft is referred to as hard water. In the UK,
water is regarded as soft if the hardness is less than 50 mg/l of calcium
carbonate. Water containing more than 50 mg/l of calcium carbonate is
termed hard water. In the United States soft water is classified as having
less than 60 mg/l of calcium carbonate.
Water Softening
is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in
hard water. The resulting soft water
requires less
soap for the same cleaning effort, as soap is not wasted mopping up
calcium ions. Soft water also extends the lifetime of plumbing by reducing
or eliminating scale build-up in pipes and fittings. Water softening is
usually achieved using lime softening or ion-exchange resins.
Borax
(wiki).
Limescale is the hard, off-white, chalky deposit found in kettles,
hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water
central heating systems. It is also often found as a similar deposit on
the inner surface of old pipes and other surfaces where "hard water" has
evaporated.
Saltwater Intrusion is the movement of
saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to contamination of
drinking water sources and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion occurs
naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic
connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saline water has a
higher mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher
water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push inland beneath the
freshwater. Certain human activities, especially groundwater pumping from
coastal freshwater wells, have increased saltwater intrusion in many
coastal areas. Water extraction drops the level of fresh groundwater,
reducing its water pressure and allowing saltwater to flow further inland.
Other contributors to saltwater intrusion include navigation channels or
agricultural and drainage channels, which provide conduits for saltwater
to move inland, and it can also make sea level rise. Saltwater intrusion
can also be worsened by extreme events like hurricane storm surges.
Hand Pump are
manually operated pumps; they use human power and mechanical advantage to
move fluids or air from one place to another.
Solar Pump for Water Wells -
Well Pumps -
Siphoning -
Air
Locks
Pressurized Well Tank -
Pressure Tank and
Well Pump System Basics (youtube)
Water Storage Tanks -
Heat Tape
Road Salt Pollutes Drinking Water Wells in suburban New York State
Well
Drilling is the process of drilling a hole in the ground for the
extraction of a natural resource such as ground water.
Deep Hole Drilling is defined as a hole depth greater than ten times
the diameter of the hole. These types of holes require special equipment
to maintain the straightness and tolerances. Other considerations are
roundness and
surface finish.
WELL DRILLING 101 |
Every Step Explained (youtube).
Drilling Rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth's
subsurface.
Gun Drilling (wiki).
Borehole
is a narrow shaft bored in the ground, either vertically or horizontally.
A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the
extraction of water.
Bore Well is a well of
4 1/2", to 12" in diameter drilled into the earth for retrieving water. A
bore well is cased in the region of loose subsoil strata open in hard rock
or in crystalline rock. High grade PVC pipes are used for Casing in bore
wells. The depth of a bore well can vary from 150 feet to 1500 feet.
Boring into earth is drilling a hole, tunnel, or well in the earth.
Auger Drill is a drilling device, or drill bit, that usually includes
a rotating helical screw blade called a "flighting" to act as a screw
conveyor to remove the drilled out material. The rotation of the blade
causes the material to move out of the hole being drilled.
Rotary Hammer is a
power tool
that can perform heavy-duty tasks such as drilling and chiseling hard materials.
Hydrogeologist is a person who
studies the ways that groundwater (hydro) moves through the soil and rock
of the earth (geology). A similar profession, a hydrologist, is someone
who studies surface water. Water is an essential part of life on earth and
is something that people, plants and animals need to survive.
Hydrogeology is
the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of
groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in
aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology
are often used interchangeably.
Magnetic
Resonance Sounding method has been used in the past years with
success in various geological and geographical contexts for
groundwater surveys. This method has indeed the ability of directly
detecting the presence of water through the excitation of the
hydrogen protons of
water molecules.
Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is a geophysical technique
specially designed for hydrogeology.
Dowsing
is a type of pseudoscientific divination employed in
attempts to locate ground water, buried
metals or ores, gemstones, oil, gravesites, malign 'earth vibrations' and
many other objects and materials without the use of a scientific
apparatus. Dowsing is also known as divining (especially in reference to
interpretation of results), doodlebugging (particularly in the United
States, in searching for petroleum) or (when searching for water) water
finding,
water witching (in the United States) or water dowsing. A
Y-shaped twig or rod, or two L-shaped ones—individually called a dowsing
rod, divining rod (Latin: virgula divina or baculus divinatorius), "vining
rod", or witching rod—are sometimes used during dowsing, although some
dowsers use other equipment or no equipment at all. Dowsing is a
pseudoscience, and the scientific evidence is that it is no more effective
than random chance. Dowsers often achieve good results because
random
chance has a high probability of
finding water in
favorable terrain. The
motion of dowsing rods is now generally attributed to the
ideomotor phenomenon, which is a psychological response where a subject makes
motions unconsciously. Put simply, dowsing rods respond to the user's
accidental or involuntary movements. Dowsing remains popular among
believers in Forteana or radiesthesia.
Groundwater is water that exists
underground
in saturated zones beneath the land surface. The upper surface of the
saturated zone is called the
water
table. Contrary to popular belief, groundwater does not form
underground rivers. Groundwater is the water present
beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil
pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of
all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater.
National Ground Water
Association was founded in 1948. The organization is composed of
United States and international groundwater professionals in four
membership divisions: water well contractors, scientists and engineers,
manufacturers, and suppliers. The group, that includes hydrogeologists,
promotes responsible water use.
Arsenic contaminates private drinking water wells across the western Great
Basin. A new study maps risk of elevated arsenic levels in groundwater
wells across northern Nevada, northeastern California, and western Utah.
In the arid and drought-stricken western Great Basin, sparse surface water
means rural communities often rely on private groundwater wells. Unlike
municipal water systems, well water quality in private wells is
unregulated, and a new study shows that more than 49 thousand well users
across the region may be at risk of exposure to unhealthy levels of
arsenic in drinking water. Although the U.S. EPA has set an arsenic
concentration guideline of 10 µg/L for public drinking water, previous
research has shown a range of health effects from long-term exposure to
levels above 5 µg/L. Using this concentration as the benchmark, the model
and map show that much of the region's groundwater -- particularly in
western and central Nevada -- is predicted to have more than a 50%
probability of elevated arsenic levels.
Arsenic
is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic
poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than
needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects
millions of people across the world. The United States' Environmental
Protection Agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to
human health. The United States' Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry ranked arsenic as number 1 in its 2001 Priority List of Hazardous
Substances at Superfund sites. Arsenic is classified as a
Group-A carcinogen. Arsenic
is bioaccumulative in many organisms, marine species in particular, but it
does not appear to biomagnify significantly in food webs. In polluted
areas, plant growth may be affected by root uptake of arsenate, which is a
phosphate analog and therefore readily transported in plant tissues and
cells. In polluted areas, uptake of the more toxic arsenite ion (found
more particularly in reducing conditions) is likely in poorly-drained
soils. Long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking-water and food can
cause cancer and skin lesions. It has also been associated with
cardiovascular disease and diabetes. In utero and early childhood exposure
has been linked to negative impacts on cognitive development and increased
deaths in young adults.
Bioaccumulation
is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as
pesticides or
other chemicals,
in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a
substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost or
eliminated by catabolism and excretion. Thus, the longer the
biological half-life of a toxic substance, the
greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of the
toxin are not very high.
Bioaccumulation,
for example in fish, can be predicted by models. Hypothesis for molecular
size cutoff criteria for use as bioaccumulation potential indicators are
not supported by data. Biotransformation can strongly modify
bioaccumulation of chemicals in an organism.
Dry Land Farming
Dryland Farming
are agricultural techniques for non-irrigated cultivation of crops.
Dryland farming is associated with drylands - dry areas characterized by a
cool wet season followed by a warm
dry season.
Agricultural Water Management.
Sustainable Farming -
Sustainable Landscaping -
Rainwater Management
Desert Farming generally relies on
irrigation, as it
is the easiest way to make a desert bloom. In California, the Imperial
Valley is a good example of what can be done. Australia and the Horn of
Africa are also places with interesting desert agriculture.
Desertification
is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land
becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as
vegetation and wildlife.
Planting Trees -
Draught Hardy Seeds
Tropical Agriculture common terms would include the
humid-tropics (rainforests); the arid-tropics (deserts and dry areas); or
monsoon zones (those areas that have well defined wet/dry seasons and
experience monsoons). Such labeling is very useful when discussing
agriculture, because what works in one area of the world will normally
work in a similar area somewhere else, even if that area is on the
opposite side of the globe.
International Water Management Institute.
Water
Management -
Irrigation -
Aquifers -
Droughts -
Dormancy
Desert Research
Institute has advanced scientific knowledge on topics ranging from
humans’ impact on the environment to the environment’s impact on humans.
Water User Association
is a group of water users, such as irrigators, who pool their financial,
technical, material, and human resources for the operation and maintenance
of a water system.
Riparian Water Rights is a system for allocating
water among those who possess land along its path.
Applied Sciences -
EPA Water Conservation Info -
North American Water and Power Alliance
(wiki) -
Crop Trust -
Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas.
Soil Knowledge
-
Food Plants for Dry Regions (PDF)
Simple steps to Climate-Proof Farms have big potential upside for Tropical
Farmers. Climate-smart agriculture boosts yields, mitigates extreme
weather impact and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. A new study points to
profitable opportunities for farmers and the environment.
Agricultural Water Optimization Program helps agricultural producers
optimize their water use to create water resiliency and improves the use
of water resources and maintains viable agriculture without increasing
depletions through innovative agricultural practices and the funding of
new and updated infrastructure.
Groundwater Banking is a process of
diverting
floodwaters or other surface water into an
aquifer
where it can be
stored until it is needed later. The space made available by emptying
some aquifers opened the door for the banking activities used so
extensively today.
Heat and
Drought-Resistant
Tepary Beans are native to the southwestern United States and Mexico
and has been grown there by the native peoples since pre-Columbian times.
It is more drought-resistant than the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and is grown in desert and semi-desert conditions from Arizona through
Mexico to Costa Rica. The water requirements are low and the crop will
grow in areas where annual rainfall is less than 400 mm (16 in).
35 Grams Have: Dietary Fiber 15g, Sugars 1g, Protein 8g, Calcium 4%,
Iron 8%.
Researchers generate Plants with enhanced Drought Resistance without
penalizing growth. A strategy to increase plant
hydric stress
resistance without affecting overall plant growth.
Exploiting the ZIP4 homologue within the
wheat Ph1 locus has identified two lines exhibiting homoeologous
crossover in wheat-wild relative hybrids.
Novel 3D imaging model may show path to more water-efficient plants. A
new computational pipeline for analyzing three-dimensional imaging data
can help biologists more accurately and quickly see how the cells in a
plant's leaves respond to the environment and identify plants that more
efficiently use water, according to researchers.
Common weed may be ‘super plant’ that holds key to drought-resistant crops.
Portulaca oleracea (common
purslane,
also known as little
hogweed, or pursley)
is an annual (actually tropical perennial in USDA growing zones 10–11)
succulent in the family Portulacaceae.
Photosynthesis.
Future-proof crops for changing climate. The world is warming quickly
with no indication of slowing down. This could be catastrophic for the
production of food crops, particularly in already warm areas. Today,
research from The University of Illinois and the US Department of
Agriculture Agricultural Research Service show that bypassing a
photosynthetic glitch common to crops like soybean, rice, and wheat, can
confer thermal protection under heat stress in the field.
Even Sonoran Desert plants aren’t immune to climate change. Supposedly
drought-tolerant species hit their breaking points.
Without this, plants cannot respond to temperature. Scientists have
significantly advanced the race to control plant responses to temperature
on a rapidly warming planet. Key to this breakthrough is miRNA, a molecule
nearly 200,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair.
Tiny plants crucial for sustaining dwindling water supplies. Miniscule
plants growing on desert
soils can help drylands retain water and reduce
erosion, researchers have found.
Cyanobacteria in the crusts secrete organic gels and polysaccharides
that help to bind small
soil particles into stable surfaces. Mosses in the
crusts also trapped water and sediment on the soil surface, preventing the
removal of soil particles.
New findings indicate gene-edited rice might survive in Martian soil.
The team was able to simulate Martian soil using basaltic rich soil mined
from the Mojave Desert, called the Mojave Mars Simulant, or MMS, which was
developed by scientists from NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The
teams then grew three varieties of rice, including one wild-type and two
gene-edited lines with genetic mutations that better enable them to
respond to stress, such as drought, sugar starvation or salinity. These
varieties were grown in the MMS, as well as a regular potted mix and a
hybrid of the two. While plants were able to grow in the Martian simulant,
they were not as developed as those grown in the potting soil and hybrid
mix. Replacing just a quarter of the Martian simulant with potting soil
resulted in improved development. The team also experimented with the
amount of perchlorate in the soil, finding that 3 grams per kilogram was
the threshold beyond which nothing would grow, while mutant strains could
still root in 1 gram per kilogram.
Desert Robot - Tiny autonomous solar-powered
robot roams around on deserts,
planting seeds to cultivate greenery. A
seedbot
is a mini
autonomous robot that
cultivates the desert.
Newly Discovered Hormone helps keep Plants from Dehydrating. Peptide
CLE25 moves from the roots to the leaves when water is scarce and helps
prevent water loss by closing pores in the leaf surface. In animals,
peptide hormones are small chains of amino acids that move through the
blood and help keep our bodies in balance when the environment changes.
For example, when your blood pressure is low, your body produces the
hormone
vasopressin, which circulates in the blood and acts to narrow your
arteries, which increases your blood pressure back to normal levels.
Plants also have hormones—called
phytohormones—but, scientists know much less about them. The plant
scientists at
RIKEN CSRS wanted to find out whether any plant hormones respond to
physical—abiotic—stress. As first author Fuminori Takahashi explains,
“Although we know that some peptide hormones in plants mediate cellular
development, until now nobody had identified any that regulate responses
to physical stresses such as dehydration.”
UMD Researchers Discover a New Role for a Well-Known Molecule as a Plant
Hormone, with Implications for Seed Production and Crop Yield. Plant
molecule called ACC or
1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid is a disubstituted cyclic
α-amino acid in which a three-membered cyclopropane ring is fused to the
Cα atom of the amino acid. ACC plays an important role in the biosynthesis
of the plant hormone ethylene.[2 It is synthesized by the enzyme ACC
synthase ( EC 4.4.1.14) from methionine and converted to ethylene by ACC
oxidase (EC 1.14.17.4).
How plants respond to heat stress. Steroid hormones contribute to the
heat stress resistance of plants. Plants, like other organisms, can be
severely affected by heat stress. To increase their chances of survival,
they activate the heat shock response, a molecular pathway also employed
by human and animal cells for stress protection. Researchers have now
discovered that plant steroid hormones can promote this response in
plants.
Gene Regulator that allows Plant Rehydration after Drought. Scientists
at the RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science in Japan have found
that the protein NGA1 is critical for plants to have normal responses to
dehydration. Published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
USA, the study shows how NGA1 controls transcription of a key gene that
ultimately allows plants to survive after periods of drought.
Plant Breeding.
Scientists Discover how Plants Breathe -- and how humans shaped their
'Lungs'. Experts reveal how plants provide a steady flow of air to
every cell. Study shows humans have bred wheat plants to have fewer pores
on their leaves and use less water. Findings pave the way to develop more
drought-resistant crops.
How Plants Beat the Heat. Researchers at the RIKEN Center for
Sustainable Resource Science in Japan have discovered a gene in plants
that helps
protect them from excessive heat. Published in the scientific
journal Plant Cell, the study shows that the newly found gene prevents the
destabilization of chloroplast membranes that occurs at very high
temperatures.
Scientists engineer crops to conserve water, Resist Drought.
Agriculture already monopolizes 90 percent of global freshwater—yet
production still needs to dramatically increase to feed and fuel this
century’s growing population. For the first time, scientists have improved
how a crop uses water by 25 percent without compromising yield by altering
the expression of one gene that is found in all plants, as reported in
Nature Communications.
Desert “Soilization”: An Eco-Mechanical Solution to Desertification
New technology
in China turns desert into land rich with crops (youtube) Paste made
from plant cell walls that retains water transforming deserts into
forests.
Zai Pits or
Half-Moons is digging holes or crescent-shaped ditches to capture
scarce rainwater and slow it down and direct it toward growing plants.
This technique also helps supports trees, which can help start the
ecological succession to reverse desertification. These shallow trenches
or holes are no deeper than a few feet.
Irrigation.
50
Years Ago, This Was a Wasteland. He Changed Everything | Short Film
Showcase (youtube) - Planting grasses to soak in rains and fill
hillside
Aquifers.
Dry Gardening -
Landscaping -
Farming Knowledge Base
Garden Thorn: water saving technology
Farming without Water -
Crop Water Needs
Plants Roots Branch Out to Access Water by sensing the availability of
moisture in soil and then adapt their shape to
optimise acquisition of water.
Tamarix aphylla or athel tamarisk, is a halophytic desert shrub,
meaning it can survive in hypersaline conditions. Over time, the plant has
evolved to take full advantage of the prevalent humidity and fog
occurrences in certain regions.
Halophyte is a
salt-tolerant plant that grows in soil or waters of high salinity, coming
into contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as
in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and
seashores.
Evaporation
Evaporation is a type of
vaporization of a
liquid
that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a
gaseous phase that is not
saturated with the
evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization
is
boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming
in the liquid phase. Steam produced in a boiler is another example of
evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase. Evaporation that occurs
directly from the solid phase below the melting point, as commonly
observed with
ice at or below freezing or moth crystals (napthalene or
paradichlorobenzene), is called
sublimation, which is the transition of a substance directly from the
solid to the gas phase without passing through the intermediate
liquid
phase.
Evaporation is the process by which water
changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. A substance's state can
normally be a
solid, liquid, or gas,
depending on its temperature and pressure. If the molecules are stuck
together really tightly in a regular pattern, then they’re called a solid.
The solid form of water is
ice. Due to this absorption of energy the
hydrogen bonds connecting water molecules to one another will break. The
molecules are now in the gaseous state; this is called water vapor. When
the molecules are moving fast enough to break the hydrogen bonds, the
water can evaporate, turning from liquid to a gas. During evaporation a
molecule of water absorbs latent heat. The Hydrogen bonds break. They are
intermolecular bonds which exist between molecules, not atoms. The
covalent bonds in each water molecule are not affected when water changes
state. Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between Hydrogen atoms on one
water molecule and the Oxygen atom on another molecule. Hydrogen bonds can
also form between Hydrogen and Nitrogen atoms. The two strands of DNA are
held together by Hydrogen bonds. Because the bonds are weaker than
covalent bonds, it makes it easy for the
DNA to separate into two strands
during replication.
Even at low temperatures,
there are some water molecules are have enough energy to escape and that's
why evaporation in water can occur at any temperature (yes, even if the
water is in ice). When the temperature increases, there are more molecules
with higher kinetic energy and thus, more water can evaporate. Water is
made up of tiny molecules that are always moving around. The constant
movement builds up energy that eventually causes water to evaporate.
However, cold water will evaporate much slower than it would if it was
hot. When water is hot, the molecules move much faster leading to a
quicker evaporation. The pressure due to the ocean of air we live under is
about 1 bar or 100 KPascals (units denoting pressure). Liquid water
undergoes a phase conversion (called boiling) at 373 K ( = 100 deg C) to
steam ( water in the vapor, or gaseous state of matter); this is because
the water pressure of the steam equals the pressure of the Earth's
atmosphere (mainly containing Nitrogen and Oxygen gases) at 100 deg C.
When this happens a tiny gas bubble "nucleases" spontaneously within the
liquid water, and the bubble grows and rises in the liquid until it pops
out at about 1 bar of water vapor
pressure.
Transpiration -
Irrigation -
Dehydration
-
Heat -
Hot Air -
Steam -
Boiling
Condensation is the conversion of a
vapor or gas into a liquid. The
change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase,
and is the reverse of
vapourisation. Water that
collects as
droplets on a cold surface when humid air is in contact with
it.
Rain -
Water from Air.
Why does humidity go up at night? Cold
air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air. Humidity is relative to the
temperature, and a colder temperature has a lower saturation point. Once
the saturation point is reached, the water condenses and forms on the
ground as dew or fog. Warmer temperatures dictate that, on average,
particles will be moving faster. Faster moving particles are more likely
to enter into what is known as the vapor phase. Cooler temperatures
dictate that particles will be moving slower on average and are thus more
likely to form what is known as condensation. Evaporation and condensation
are processes of water changing between states due to alterations of the
temperature. The three states in which water is able to manifest are solid
(ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam). Condensation would be the
formation of fog. When the air rapidly begins cooling and the saturation
point is reached, the excess moisture will often manifest itself in the
form of fog. Evaporation is boiling a pot of water. Water boils at 100
degrees Celsius / 212 degrees Fahrenheit, the particles begin speeding up,
causing the water to become steam. If left long enough, the entirety of
the water contained in the pot will evaporate, leaving the pot completely
empty. Absolute humidity is the direct humidity level devoid of all other
factors.
Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation and
plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the
atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from
sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and waterbodies.
Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the
subsequent loss of water as vapor through stomata in its leaves.
Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle. An element
(such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator.
Cellular Respiration is the process in which nutrients are converted
into useful
energy in a cell.
Photosynthesis.
Aquatic Respiration is when animals are extracting
oxygen from water.
Ecosystem Respiration is the measurement of gross carbon dioxide
production by all organisms in an ecosystem.
Root
Respiration is the exchange of gases between plant roots and the
atmosphere.
Respiration in physiology is the
transporting oxygen and carbon
dioxide between cells and the external environment.
Vapor is a visible suspension in the air of
particles of some substance.
Boil.
Water Vapor is the
gaseous phase of water.
It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be
produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the
sublimation of
ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is
continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is
less dense than air and triggers
convection currents that can lead to
clouds. Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it
is particularly abundant in Earth's atmosphere where it is also a potent
greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane.
Use of water vapor, as
steam, has been important to humans for cooking and
as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the
industrial revolution. Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric
constituent, present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet
in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural
satellites, comets and even large asteroids. Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other
planetary systems. Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect
evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the
case of some planetary mass objects.
Light can make water evaporate without heat.
Desert Agriculture and Agroforestry
Semiarid Agriculture -
Semi-Arid-Climates
Semi-arid Climate is the climate of a region that
receives
precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not
extremely. There are different kinds of semi-arid climates, depending on
such variables as temperature, and they give rise to different classes of
ecology.
Köppen Climate Zone Classification is one of the most widely used
climate classification systems.
Climate Zones.
Survivopedia
Climate Change -
Food Chemistry Dangers
Dry Climate Agriculture -
Drought
Desert is a barren area of land where little
precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for
plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected
surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one third of
the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of
the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are
sometimes called polar deserts or "cold deserts". Deserts can be
classified by the amount of
precipitation that falls, by the temperature
that prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical
location.
Arid is characterized by a severe lack of available
water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development
of plant and animal life. Environments subject to arid climates tend to
lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most "arid" climates
surround the equator; these places include most of Africa and parts of
South America, Central America and Australia.
Trees -
Permaculture
Arable Land is land capable of being ploughed and
used to grow crops. In Britain, it was traditionally contrasted with
pasturable lands such as heaths which could be used for sheep-rearing but not farmland.
Growing Food in Space
-
Water From Air
Desertification is a type of land degradation in
which relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly arid, typically
losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife.
Orography is the study of the topographic relief of
mountains, and can more broadly include hills, and any part of a region's
elevated terrain. Orography (also known as oreography, orology or oreology)
falls within the broader discipline of geomorphology.
Allan Savory: Make Deserts Green (video)
Green Gold: Reversing Deserts (video)
A forgotten Ancient Grain that could help Africa Prosper (video and
interactive text)
Fonio is
the term for two cultivated grains in the Digitaria genus which are
notable crops in parts of West Africa. The grains are very small. The
crops have C4 metabolisms and are medium in height. The number of
chromosomes for the species can be diploid (2n), tetraploid (4n), or
hexaploid (6n). also called "hungry rice," is the most important of a
diverse group of wild and domesticated Digitaria species that are
harvested in the savannas of West Africa. Fonio has the smallest seeds of
all species of millet. It has potential to improve nutrition, boost food
security, foster rural development, and support sustainable use of the
land.Fonio has continued to be important locally because it is both
nutritious and one of the world's fastest-growing cereals, reaching
maturity in as little as six to eight weeks. It is a crop that can be
relied on in semi-arid areas with poor soils, where rains are brief and
unreliable. The grains are used in porridge and couscous, for bread, and
for beer. The small grains make it difficult and time-consuming to remove
the husk. Traditional methods include pounding it in a mortar with sand
(then separating the grains and sand) or "popping" it over a flame and
then pounding it (which yields a toasted-color grain; this technique is
used among the Akposso). The invention of a simple fonio husking machine
offers an easier mechanical way to dehusk.
A Cereal Survives Heat and Drought.
Pearl
millet genome sequence provides a resource to improve agronomic traits
in extreme environments.
Pearl
millet is the most widely grown type of millet. It has been grown in
Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times.
Millet
are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around
the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Millets are
important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa (especially in
India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger), with 97% of millet production in
developing countries. The crop is favored due to its productivity and
short growing season under dry, high-temperature conditions.
Savory Institute
What if we Change
Africa Centre For Holistic Management
Holistic Management
Earthworks
Holistic Management is a systems thinking approach
to managing resources that was originally developed by Allan Savory for
reversing desertification.
Rangeland are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands,
wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild
animals. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass prairies,
desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals,
steppes, and tundras. Rangelands do not include forests lacking grazable
understory vegetation, barren desert, farmland, or land covered by solid
rock, concrete and/or glaciers.
Grazing is a method of feeding in which a herbivore
feeds on plants such as grasses, or other multicellular organisms such as
algae. In agriculture, grazing is one method used whereby domestic
livestock are used to convert grass and other forage into meat, milk and
other products.
Ecology -
Environmental Awareness
-
Natural Sequence Farming
-
Natural Sequence Farming.
Natural Sequence Farming
is a method of landscape regeneration that involves
implementing major earthworks on a given area of land that has been
devastated by deforestation and general agricultural activities, to
emulate the role of natural watercourses in an effort to reverse salinity,
slow erosion and increase soil and water quality to enable native
vegetation to regenerate and restore the riparian zone. The method does
not require the use of
artificial fertilizers or herbicides.
Erosion
Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as
water flow,
Rain or wind) that remove
soil, rock, or dissolved material from one
location on the
Earth's crust, then transport it away to another location.
The particulate breakdown of
rock or soil into clastic sediment is
referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with
chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by
its dissolving into a solvent (typically water), followed by the flow away
of that solution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few
millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.
Glaciers -
Wind -
Soil
Expansion -
Sinkholes -
Soil Liquefaction
Soil Erosion Threats. 6.9 billon tons of soil are
eroded each year in America.
Soil in Midwestern US is eroding 10 to 1,000 times faster than it forms,
study finds.
Entrainment in physical geography is the process by which surface
sediment is incorporated into a fluid flow (such as air, water or even
ice) as part of the operation of erosion.
Solvent is a substance
that
dissolves a solute or a chemically distinct liquid, solid or gas,
resulting in a solution. A solvent is usually a liquid but can also be a
solid, a
gas, or a
supercritical fluid. The quantity of solute that can
dissolve in a
specific volume of solvent varies with temperature. Water is a solvent for
polar molecules and the most common solvent
used by living things; all the ions and proteins in a cell are dissolved
in water within a cell. Solvents have various applications in
chemical syntheses and
purification processes.
Showering -
Washing Hands -
Storm Water Management
-
Landscaping
How we can make Crops Survive without Water (video and text)
Protecting a Slope from
Erosion. Plant grass and
shrubs.
Bare soil is easily swept away by
wind and
water, the two main causes of erosion. Add mulch or rocks or spread loose
straw and completely cover the exposed soil. Use mulch matting to hold
vegetation on
slopes. Put down fiber logs.
Build
retaining walls. Improve drainage.
Reduce watering if possible. Avoid
soil
compaction.
Water Bar
or interceptor dyke is a road or trail construction feature that is used
to prevent erosion on sloping roads, cleared paths through woodland (for
utility companies such as electricity pylons), or other accessways by
reducing flow length. It is a diagonal channel across the road that
diverts surface water (that would otherwise
flow down the whole length of the road) off the road and into a stable
drain way. By constructing a series of water bars at intervals along a
road, the volume of water flowing down the road is reduced. Without water
bars, flooding, washouts, and accelerated road degradation can occur. The
drain way carries the water that would otherwise be carried by the road.
For proper operation of the water bars it must be stable and regularly
inspected to ensure that it is free of silt buildup or other obstructions.
Water bar on Upper Table Rock in Southern Oregon
Water bars are usually
constructed at an angle across the road. They tend to make passage by
vehicle on the road difficult; usually a large high-clearance four wheel
drive vehicle is required. Water bars are common on roads such as Forest
Service Roads, especially in mountainous terrain with high rainfall.
Zuni Bowls help stabilize actively
eroding headcuts by dissipating the energy of falling water at the headcut
pour-over and the bed of the channel. Zuni Bowl Technique This structure
is placed at the "head" or beginning of a gully, preventing the headcut
from eroding further.
Rolling Dips
consist of a graded dip that has a drain area cut with a blade on a
bulldozer or grader to divert the water off the side of the road. The dirt
that is removed for the dip and the drain is then used to build up a
slope, or rollout, on the road, with a grade of about 2 percent to 4
percent.
Landslide are several forms of mass movement that may include a wide
range of ground movements, such as
rockfalls,
mudflows,
shallow or deep-seated
slope failures and
debris
flows. Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by
either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal
cliffs or
even underwater, in which case they are called submarine landslides.
Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, but there
are other factors affecting slope stability that produce specific
conditions that make a slope prone to failure. In many cases, the
landslide is triggered by a specific event (such as a heavy rainfall, an
earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many others), although this
is not always identifiable.
Mass
Movement is a general term for the movement of rock or soil down
slopes under the force of gravity. It differs from other processes of
erosion in that the debris transported by mass wasting is not entrained in
a moving medium, such as water, wind, or ice. Types of mass wasting
include creep, solifluction, rockfalls, debris flows, and landslides, each
with its own characteristic features, and taking place over timescales
from seconds to hundreds of years. Mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial
and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth, Mars, Venus,
Jupiter's moon Io, and on many other bodies in the Solar System.
Landslides are one of the most destructive natural disasters on the planet,
causing billions of dollars of damage and devastating loss of life every
year. A global team of researchers has provided help for those who work to
predict landslides and risk evaluations. Researchers introduce new way to
study, help prevent landslides.
On-Farm Flood Capture could Reduce Groundwater Overdraft in Kings River
Basin
Infiltration in hydrology -
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydrogeologist or
Groundwater Hydrologist specializes in atmospheric and surface/subsurface
interactions. Hydrogeologists typically train in departments of geology
whereas groundwater hydrologists usually study within engineering
departments, although interdisciplinary programs are becoming more common.
Hydrogeologists and groundwater hydrologists and engineers evaluate
the quantity, quality, reliability, and sustainability of all aspects of
groundwater assessment, management, and development.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement,
distribution, and
quality of
water on Earth and other planets, including the
water cycle,
water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner
of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or
environmental science, physical geography, geology or civil and
environmental engineering. Hydrology subdivides into
surface water
hydrology, groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology.
Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology,
hydrogeology, drainage-basin management and water quality, where water
plays the central role. Oceanography and meteorology are not included
because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields.
Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering, policy and
planning.
Drip Irrigation
Drip Irrigation is a form of irrigation that saves
water and fertilizer by allowing water to
drip slowly to the roots of many
different plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root
zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done
through narrow tubes that deliver water directly to the base of the plant.
It is chosen instead of surface irrigation for various reasons, often
including concern about minimizing evaporation.
Drip Irrigation
Tools -
Irrigation
water use -
Water for Farming Use
Irrigation
is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants
at regular intervals for agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing
of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.
Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production,
which include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in
grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture
that relies only on direct
rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or
dry land
farming. Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal
of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with
drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and
sub-surface water from a given area.
Irrigation -
Soil -
Erosion -
Dry Land
Farming
Center Pivot Irrigation is a method of crop irrigation in which
equipment rotates around a pivot and crops are watered with sprinklers. A
circular area centered on the pivot is irrigated, often creating a
circular pattern in crops when viewed from above (sometimes referred to as
crop circles). Most center pivots were initially water-powered, and today
most are propelled by electric motors.
Irrigation For Farming Could Leave Many Of The World's Streams And Rivers
Dry.
Infiltration in hydrology is the process by which water on the ground
surface enters the soil. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of
the rate at which soil is able to absorb
rainfall or
irrigation. It is measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour. The
rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated. If the precipitation rate
exceeds the infiltration rate,
runoff will usually
occur unless there is some physical barrier. It is related to the
saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the near-surface soil. The rate of
infiltration can be measured using an
infiltrometer, which is a device used to measure the rate of water
infiltration into soil or other porous media. Commonly used infiltrometers
are single ring or double ring infiltrometer, and also
disc permeameter, which is a field instrument used for measuring water
infiltration in the soil, which is characterized by in situ saturated and
unsaturated soil hydraulic properties. It is mainly used to provide
estimates of the hydraulic conductivity of the soil near saturation.
Hydraulic Conductivity is a property of vascular plants, soils and
rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move
through pore spaces or fractures. It depends on the intrinsic permeability
of the material, the degree of saturation, and on the density and
viscosity of the fluid. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ksat, describes
water movement through saturated media. By definition, hydraulic
conductivity is the ratio of velocity to hydraulic gradient indicating
permeability of porous media.
Farm
Water is water committed for use in the production of food and
fiber. On average,
80 percent of the fresh water
withdrawn from rivers and groundwater is used to produce food and other
agricultural products. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation
of crops or the watering of livestock.
Water Use Stats
Swale Landform is a low tract of land, especially
one that is moist or marshy. The term can refer to a natural landscape
feature or a human-created one. Artificial swales are often designed to
manage water runoff, filter pollutants, and increase rainwater
infiltration.
More-Crop-Per-Drop -
Micro-Sprinklers low-pressure bayonet.
Zai is a farming technique
to dig pits (20-30 cm long and deep and 90 cm apart) in the soil during
the preseason to catch water and concentrate compost. The technique is
traditionally used in western Sahel (Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali) to restore
degraded drylands and increase soil fertility. Zaï holes were reintroduced
since the 1980s by Yacouba Sawadogo, a farmer from Burkina Faso, who
introduced the innovation of filling them with manure and compost to
provide plant nutrients. The manure attracts termites, whose tunnels help
further break up the soil. He also slightly increased the size of the
holes over the traditional models. Zaï holes help by improving the yields
of trees, sorghum, and millet by up to 500 percent. As an alternative to
the zaï-technique some agricultural engineers suggest a diking technique,
especially in the case of very light soils.(
tassa
irrigation method).
Dry Land Farming.
Gravity Feed
is the use of earth's gravity to move something (usually a liquid) from
one place to another. It is a simple means of moving a liquid without the
use of a pump. A common application is the supply of fuel to an internal
combustion engine by placing the fuel tank above the engine, e.g. in
motorcycles, lawn mowers, etc. A non-liquid application is the carton flow
shelving system.
Culvert
is a structure that
allows water to flow under a road,
railroad, trail, or similar obstruction from one side to the other.
Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made
from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material. In the United Kingdom,
the word can also be used for a longer artificially buried
watercourse. Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains to
relieve drainage of ditches at the roadside, and to pass water under a
road at natural drainage and stream crossings. A culvert may be a
bridge-like structure designed to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to
cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage for the water.
Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical,
flat-bottomed, open-bottomed, pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The
culvert type and shape selection is based on a number of factors including
requirements for hydraulic performance, limitations on upstream water
surface elevation, and roadway embankment height. The process of removing
culverts to restore an open-air watercourse is known as
daylighting. In the UK, the practice is also known as deculverting.
Sustainable Landscaping (lawns)
Rainbird -
Rain Garden -
Irritrol PC Control
Irrigation Management Systems -
Water Professionals
Scientists propose improvements to precision crop irrigation. With
threats of water scarcity complicating the need to feed a growing global
population, it is more important than ever to get crop irrigation right.
Overwatering can deplete local water supplies and lead to polluted runoff,
while underwatering can lead to sub-optimal crop performance. Yet few
farmers use science-based tools to help them decide when and how much to
water their crops.
Agricultural Dewatering
Rob Harmon: How to keep streams flowing
(youtube)
Water Blueprint
North of the 49th parallel of latitude. Productive farming, therefore,
depends on crops that ripen early, if they are spring sown, or are winter
hardy, if they are winter annuals, biennials or perennials. Crops can be
classified in several ways. By growth habit they are annual, biennial or
perennial, depending on whether they complete their life cycle in one or
two years, or persist for over two years. The special term "winter
annuals" is used for crops that are planted and germinate in fall, spend
winter in a dormant state, renew growth in spring and are harvested in
July or August.
Climate Categories in Viticulture are categorized based on the overall
characteristics of the area's climate during the growing season.
Subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between
the tropics at
latitude 23.5° (the
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and temperate zones (normally
referring to latitudes 35–66.5°) north and south of the Equator.
Tropical Agriculture common terms would include the humid-tropics
(rainforests); the arid-tropics (deserts and dry areas); or monsoon zones
(those areas that have well defined wet/dry seasons and experience
monsoons). Such labeling is very useful when discussing agriculture,
because what works in one area of the world will normally work in a
similar area somewhere else, even if that area is on the opposite side of
the globe. Most temperate zone agricultural techniques are inappropriate for tropical areas.
An Engineer Created Growable Ice Towers to help combat Drought.
Ice
Spike is an ice formation, often in the shape of an inverted icicle,
that projects upwards from the surface of a body of frozen water. Ice
spikes created by natural processes on the surface of small bodies of
frozen water have been reported for many decades, although their
occurrence is quite rare.
Drought - No Rain - No More Glaciers
Drought is a period of
below-average precipitation
in a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply,
whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for
months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. It can have a
substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region
and harm to the local economy. Annual dry seasons in the
tropics
significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and subsequent
bush fires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by
hastening
evaporation of water vapour.
Drought Monitor -
The National Drought
Mitigation Center -
Dry Land Farming
Climate-Related Threats to Global Food Production include risks to
grain, vegetable, and fruit crops, livestock, and fisheries.
California 2022 Water Supply Strategy (PDF)
Climate Change and Food Security -
Food Security
-
Global Warming
Faster, more Accurate way to Monitor Drought. By combining surface and
air temperature measurements from thousands of weather stations and
satellite images, we can monitor current conditions across an entire
region in near real time and identify the specific places where
drought-induced thermal stress is occurring.
Drought Eye.
Water
Risk Areas -
Global Precipitation Measurements
Groundwater use can be accurately monitored with satellites using OPENet.
Groundwater is often pumped to the surface to irrigate crops, and meters
that measure the flow of pumped water have historically offered the best
information on groundwater use. These meters are rare, however, so
scientists set out to determine whether
OpenET, a platform that
measures
evapotranspiration using
satellite data, could help
fill this information gap.
Dry
Land Farming -
Hibernation
(drought resistance)
Field of Vision -
Scenes from a Dry City. What happens when a major metropolitan area
runs out of water? In Cape Town, South Africa, residents fear the arrival
of “Day Zero,” when the city’s taps will be shut off.
Dirt Farmer is a farmer who earns a living
from a farm on poor land, typically without the help of hired labor, or a
farmer who earns a living by farming the land especially without the help
of hired hands or tenants.
Climate-driven mega-drought is emerging in western US, says study.
United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) says that crops such as wheat and maize are
generating more potential
toxins as a reaction to protect themselves from
extreme weather. These chemical compounds are harmful to people and
animals if consumed for a prolonged period of time. Under normal
conditions, for instance, plants convert nitrates they absorb into
nutritious amino acids and proteins. But prolonged
drought slows or prevents this
conversion, leading to more potentially problematic nitrate accumulating
in the plant. If people eat
too much nitrate in their diets, it can
interfere with the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen in the
body, Crops susceptible to accumulating too much nitrate in times of
stress include maize, wheat, barley, soybeans, millet and sorghum. Some
drought-stressed crops, when then exposed to sudden large amounts of rain
that lead to rapid growth, in turn accumulate
hydrogen cyanide, more commonly known as prussic acid. Prussic acid -
one of the ingredients used in some types of chemical warfare - interferes
with oxygen flow in humans. Plants such as cassava, flax, maize and
sorghum are most vulnerable to dangerous prussic acid accumulation. Cases
of
nitrate
or hydrogen cyanide poisoning in humans were reported in Kenya in 2013 and
in the Philippines in 2005. Aflatoxins, molds that can affect plant crops
and raise the risk of liver damage, cancer and blindness, as well as
stunting foetuses and infants.
About 4.5 billion people in developing countries are exposed to
aflatoxins each year Toxic crops can lead to neurological diseases
among humans but the greatest challenge is the incidence of cancer.
Research centers with the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research are developing seeds that are suitable in various regions that
have been hit by
climate change.
Increasing prevalence of hot drought across western North America
since the 16th century.
1.5 billion people will depend on water from mountains. Global water
consumption has increased almost fourfold in the past 100 years, and many
regions can only meet their water demand thanks to essential contributions
from mountain regions. In 30 years, almost a quarter of the world's
lowland population will strongly depend on runoff from the mountains. Only
sustainable development can ensure the important function of mountain
areas as Earth's ''water towers''.
More than half of the world's largest lakes are shrinking. Significant
declines across 53% of the lakes and reservoirs. Human activities have
caused more than half of the world's largest lakes to shrink dramatically
over the last 30 years, according to a new study published in the journal
Science. The implications pose risks to human health, economies and the
natural world. The study looked at nearly 2,000 of the planet's largest
lakes and reservoirs using three decades of satellite observations and
climate models to measure how bodies of water have shrunk or grown over
time, and to parse out what influenced the change. figures show roughly 2
billion people around the world do not have access to it and roughly half
the world's population experiences severe water scarcity at least once a
year.
Western ‘Megadrought’ Is the Worst in 1,200 Years -
Aridification of North America
Arsenic Exposure from Private Domestic Wells. Assessing the Impact of
Drought on Arsenic Exposure from Private Domestic Wells in the
Conterminous United States.
Lifetime exposure to low levels of
arsenic in drinking water, between 10 and 100 micrograms per liter, or
µg/L, was linked to a higher risk of coronary heart disease. Other
research has tied chronic exposure to low-level arsenic to hypertension,
diabetes, and cancer. Pregnant women and children are at greater risk for
harm. research has shown that, even at 5 µg/L, arsenic is linked to higher
rates of skin lesions.
150-year-old San Luis Valley farm stops growing food to save a shrinking
water supply. It might be the first deal of its kind in the country.
Rain - Precipitation - Water Cycle
Rain is
liquid water in the form of droplets
or really small round
sphericals of water that
have
condensed from
atmospheric
water vapor and then precipitated and
become heavy enough to fall under
gravity.
Raindrops begin forming when water vapor condenses on micrometer-sized
particles of dust floating in the atmosphere. (pressure, temperature
and electrical charge). The dust particles grow to
millimeter-sized droplets, which are heavy enough to begin falling.
Raindrops form in a roughly spherical structure due to the
surface tension of water. The surface tension is
stronger on smaller raindrops than in larger drops. Rain is a major component of
the
water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water
on the Earth. Rain provides suitable conditions for many types of
ecosystems, as well as water for
hydroelectric power plants and crop
irrigation.
Floods
-
Erosion -
Weather -
Volunteers Measure
Precipitation from each Nation
Precipitation is the quantity of water falling to earth at a
specific place within a specified period of time. Any form of water like
rain,
snow, hail, sleet or mist that falls to earth,
ground or sea.
Precipitate is a suspension
of newly formed particles falling from the
clouds, like rain drops,
snow flakes, hail stones,
sleet or mist.
Water
Cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below
the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly
constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major
reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is
variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves
from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the
ocean to the
atmosphere, by the
physical processes of
evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface
flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid
(ice) and
vapor. The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which
leads to temperature changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy
from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it
releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence
climate. The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then
replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of
liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also
involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through
processes including
erosion and sedimentation. The
water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and
ecosystems on the planet. (also known as the hydrologic cycle or the
hydrological cycle).
Tracking Raindrops, one molecule at a time. To understand the past,
present and future of rainfall, we need a better understanding of the
deuterium in every drop. You no doubt know that water, H2O, is composed of
two molecules of hydrogen and one of oxygen. What you may not know is that
there are a few different varieties of both hydrogen and oxygen. The
"normal" hydrogen, for example, has a nucleus with only one proton, but
there's another version: "heavy hydrogen," or deuterium, which has both a
proton and a neutron in its nucleus. This deuterium is comparatively
rarer, and it can be used both to track rainfall amounts over time as well
as to understand evaporation and seasonal changes in climate. The same is
true for oxygen, which has both a common light version and a rare heavy
version. "
Deuterium
excess," or when the ratio of heavy hydrogen to heavy oxygen
increases, is a fingerprint that is widely used in climate and
hydrological modeling and for reconstructing past climates to understand
the history of a raindrop. But the processes that lead to the excess of
deuterium aren't entirely understood. "Our paper is the first to look at
seasonal variations of deuterium excess in rainfall across the globe to
better understand what affects these chemical tracers at regional scales,"
says Matthew Winnick, professor of geosciences at UMass Amherst, and the
paper's senior author.
Surface Water is water located on top of land, forming terrestrial
(surrounding by land on all sides) waterbodies, and may also be referred
to as blue water, opposed to the seawater and waterbodies like the
ocean. The vast majority of surface water
is produced by
precipitation. As the climate warms in
the spring, snowmelt runs off towards nearby streams and rivers
contributing towards a large portion of human drinking water. Levels of
surface water lessen as a result of evaporation as well as water moving
into the ground becoming
ground-water. Alongside
being used for
drinking water, surface water is
also used for irrigation, wastewater treatment, livestock, industrial
uses, hydropower, and recreation. For USGS water-use reports, surface
water is considered
freshwater when it contains
less than 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of dissolved solids. There are
three major types of surface water. Permanent (perennial) surface waters
are present year round, and includes lakes, rivers and wetlands (marshes
and swamps). Semi-permanent (ephemeral) surface water refers to bodies of
water that are only present at certain times of the year including
seasonally dry channels such as creeks, lagoons and waterholes. Man-made
surface water is water that can be continued by infrastructures that
humans have assembled. This would be dammed artificial lakes, canals and
artificial ponds (e.g. garden ponds) or swamps. The surface water held by
dams can be used for renewable energy in the form of hydropower.
Hydropower is the forcing of surface water sourced from rivers and streams
to produce energy.
Global groundwater depletion is accelerating, but is not inevitable.
Aquifers are declining worldwide, put success
stories highlight that proactive management can reverse these trends.
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and
soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.
Watershed is an area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to
different rivers, basins, or seas. A ridge of land that separates two
adjacent river systems. The entire geographical area
drained by a river and its tributaries; an
area characterized by all runoff being conveyed to the same outlet
Water Table.
Drainage Divide
is elevated terrain that separates neighboring
drainage basins. Also known as water divide, ridgeline, watershed,
water parting or height of land.
Drainage Basin is an area of land where all flowing surface water
converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another
body of water, such as a lake or ocean.
Watershed Management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a
watershed aimed at the
sustainable distribution of its resources and the
process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to
sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and
human communities within a watershed boundary. Features of a watershed
that agencies seek to manage include
water supply, water
quality,
drainage, stormwater runoff, water rights, and the overall planning and
utilization of watersheds. Landowners, land use agencies,
storm water
management experts, environmental specialists, water use surveyors and
communities all play an integral part in watershed management.
Surface Runoff is the flow of water that occurs when
excess storm water, meltwater, or other sources flows over the Earth's
surface. This might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity,
because rain arrives more quickly than
soil can absorb it, or because
impervious areas (roofs and pavement) send their runoff to surrounding
soil that cannot absorb all of it. Surface runoff is a major component of
the water cycle. It is the primary agent in soil
Erosion by water.
Urban Runoff is surface runoff of rainwater created by urbanization.
This runoff is a major source of flooding and water pollution in urban
communities worldwide. Impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots and
sidewalks) are constructed during land development. During rain storms and
other precipitation events, these surfaces (built from materials such as
asphalt and concrete), along with rooftops, carry polluted stormwater to
storm drains, instead of allowing the water to percolate through soil.
This causes lowering of the water table (because groundwater recharge is
lessened) and flooding since the amount of water that remains on the
surface is greater. Most municipal storm sewer systems discharge
stormwater, untreated, to streams, rivers and bays. This excess water can
also make its way into people's properties through basement backups and
seepage through building wall and floors.
Storm Water Management is the quantity and quality of stormwater
manage using
Best Management Practice (BMP) or stormwater control measure
(SCM). Often used to refer to both structural or engineered control
devices and systems (e.g. retention ponds) to treat or store
polluted stormwater, as well as operational or
procedural practices (e.g. street sweeping). Stormwater management
includes both technical and institutional aspects, including: Control of
flooding and
erosion; Control of hazardous materials to
prevent release of
pollutants into the environment (source control); Planning and
construction of stormwater systems so contaminants are removed before they
pollute surface waters or groundwater resources; Acquisition and
protection of natural waterways or rehabilitation; Building "soft"
structures such as ponds, swales, wetlands or green
infrastructure
solutions to work with existing or "hard" drainage structures, such as
pipes and concrete channels; Development of funding approaches to stormwater programs potentially including stormwater user fees and the
creation of a stormwater utility; Development of long-term asset
management programs to repair and replace aging infrastructure; Revision
of current stormwater regulations to address comprehensive stormwater
needs; Enhancement and enforcement of existing ordinances to make sure
property owners consider the effects of stormwater before, during and
after development of their land; Education of a community about how its
actions affect water quality, and about what it can do to improve water
quality; and planning carefully to create solutions before problems become
too great.
EPA Facility Stormwater Management.
Low-Impact Development describes a
land planning and
engineering design approach to manage
stormwater runoff as part of
green infrastructure. This
approach implements engineered small-scale
hydrologic controls to replicate the pre-development hydrologic regime
of
watersheds through infiltrating,
filtering, storing,
evaporating, and detaining runoff close to its source. LID emphasizes
conservation and use of on-site natural features to protect water quality.
Green infrastructure’ investments are one approach that
often yields multiple benefits and builds city
resilience.
Water Supply Development means the
planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of public or
private facilities for water collection, production, treatment,
transmission, or distribution for sale, resale, or
end use.
Many cities are still building their infrastructure for the climate of the
past, using
rainfall
records that haven't been updated in decades. Rainfall reports for
some states are 50 years old, which means they don't reflect how the
climate has already changed in recent decades. And states themselves have
to pay for those updates. Heavier downpours are taking an increasing toll
on cities, inundating homes and roads.
Up-to-date
records won't show how the climate will continue to change in the future.
So many
flood planners are also pushing NOAA to fund and release local
forecasts of how rainfall is expected to intensify going forward, to
ensure that infrastructure projects built today won't become obsolete as
temperatures warm. The size of storm drains and pipes limits how much
water the system can handle. When they're overwhelmed, flooding can happen
in neighborhoods far from any river or creek, where residents likely lack
flood insurance. In some places, the stormwater infrastructure is designed
for a storm that's considered a 1-in-5 year storm, or that has a 20%
chance of hitting. Other cities plan for an even more severe storm, like a
1-in-25 year storm. The Northeast and Midwestern U.S. have seen the
biggest increases, with the heaviest storms producing 55% more rain today
in the Northeast compared to 1958, according to the 2018 National Climate
Assessment.
Drainage
is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface
water from an area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most
agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging
(anaerobic conditions that harm root growth), but many soils need
artificial drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.
Return
Flow is surface and subsurface water that leaves the field following
application of
irrigation water. While irrigation
return flows is a point source, they are expressly exempted from permit
requirements under the Clean Water Act (P.L. 92-500, as amended). Return
flows generally return to the irrigation centre after a period of about
three to four weeks; due to this, the farmers usually need to pour bleach
into the water to clean it of any organisms that have entered the stream.
If this is not taken care of, diseases such as typhoid or cholera could
enter the irrigation and pose a risk of epidemic disease to surrounding
towns and cities.
Bioretention is the process in which contaminants and sedimentation
are removed from stormwater runoff. Stormwater is collected into the
treatment area which consists of a grass buffer strip, sand bed, ponding
area, organic layer or mulch layer, planting soil, and plants. Runoff
passes first over or through a sand bed, which slows the runoff's
velocity, distributes it evenly along the length of the ponding area,
which consists of a surface organic layer and/or groundcover and the
underlying planting soil. The ponding area is graded, its center
depressed. Water is ponded to a depth of 15 cm (5.9 in) and gradually
infiltrates the bioretention area or is evapotranspired. The bioretention
area is graded to divert excess runoff away from itself. Stored water in
the bioretention area planting soil exfiltrates over a period of days into
the underlying soils.
Topmix Permeable is a fast draining concrete pavement solution that
rapidly directs
stormwater off streets, parking
surfaces, driveways and walkways. This minimises the cost and long-term
maintenance for local authorities and developers of stormwater management.
Radiative
Forcing is the difference between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by
the Earth and energy radiated back to space. The influences that cause
changes to the Earth’s climate system altering Earth’s radiative
equilibrium, forcing temperatures to rise or fall, are called climate
Forcings. Positive radiative forcing means Earth receives more incoming
energy from sunlight than it radiates to space. This net gain of energy
will cause warming. Conversely, negative radiative forcing means that
Earth loses more energy to space than it receives from the sun, which
produces cooling.
Dust
Radiative Forcing.
Blood Rain is a phenomenon in which blood is
perceived to fall from the sky in the form of rain.
Haematococcus Pluvialis is a freshwater species of
Chlorophyta from the family Haematococcaceae. This species is well known
for its high content of the strong antioxidant astaxanthin, which is
important in aquaculture, and cosmetics. Often responsible for the
blood-red colour seen in the bottom of dried out rock pools and bird
baths.
Stormwater could be a large source of microplastics and rubber fragments
to waterways. In cities, heavy rains wash away the gunk collecting on
sidewalks and roads, picking up all kinds of debris. However, the amount
of
microplastic pollution swept
away by this runoff is currently unknown. Now, researchers report that
stormwater can be a large source of microplastics and rubber fragments to
water bodies and, with a proof-of-concept experiment, show that a rain
garden could keep these microscopic pieces out of a storm drain. Most
cities' storm drains end up discharging directly into wetlands, creeks or
rivers. Rainwater running into these drains becomes a concoction of
whatever is on the ground, including dirt and grass clippings, leaked car
fluids, fertilizer and garbage. Recently, researchers also found that
strong rains can displace microplastics, sweeping them into stormwater,
but the importance of this runoff as a source of contamination is not well
understood. So, Chelsea Rochman and colleagues wanted to see whether
microplastics and other tiny
particles are carried into waterways by storms in urban areas, and whether
a rain garden could prevent that from happening.
Dust
speeds up spring water runoff causing
intense melting and streams to peak weeks earlier than usual — which
wreaks havoc throughout the alpine ecosystem.
Without dirt or dust, the snow melts off slow and steady. Most of the
dust that's settling in places like the San Juan mountains comes from the
desert southwest, from land disturbances like farming, oil and gas
drilling, cattle grazing, recreation and residential development on the
southern end of the Colorado Plateau.
Floodplain is an
area of land adjacent to a stream or
river which stretches from the banks
of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls and which
experiences
flooding during periods of high discharge. The soils usually
consist of levees, silts, and sands deposited during
floods. Levees are
the heaviest materials (usually pebble-size) and they are deposited first;
silts and sands are finer materials.
Reclaiming Water - Rain Harvesting
Groundwater Recharge is a
hydrologic process, where water moves
downward from surface water to
groundwater. Recharge is the primary method
through which water enters an
aquifer. This process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots and, is often expressed as a flux to the
water table surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving
away from the water table farther into the saturated zone. Recharge occurs
both naturally (through the water cycle) and through anthropogenic
processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and
or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface.
Well Water -
Aquifers -
Springs
-
Energy Storage
Retention Basin
is used to manage stormwater runoff to prevent
flooding and downstream erosion, and
improve water quality in an adjacent river, stream, lake or bay. Sometimes
called a wet pond or wet detention basin or stormwater management pond, it
is an artificial lake with vegetation around the perimeter, and includes a
permanent pool of water in its design.
Detention Basin is an excavated area installed on, or adjacent to,
tributaries of rivers, streams, lakes or bays to protect against flooding
and, in some cases, downstream erosion by storing water for a limited
period of time. A detention basin, sometimes called a "dry pond", which
temporarily stores water after a storm, but eventually empties out at a
controlled rate to a downstream water body. It also differs from an
infiltration basin which is designed to direct stormwater to groundwater
through permeable soils.
Hydrogeology is the area of geology that deals with the distribution
and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust
(commonly in aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and
hydrogeology are often used interchangeably.
Hydrogeological Survey investigates a
specific area's subsurface hydrologic and geologic parameters. The data
gathered during such a study can be used to create hydrogeological maps.
It entails a survey of the water-bearing levels as well as filtration
capacity of rocks.
Hydrographic Surveys.
Catchment Area
is he area from which rainfall flows into a river, lake, or reservoir.
Trapping rainwater techniques include digging different kinds of trenches,
such as "contour trenches" and "percolation pits." Percolation refers to
the filtering of liquid through a permeable substance. These trenches and
pits help minimize surface water runoff and channel the rainwater into the
soil, allowing it to filter through the ground and into the aquifers.
Sponge City is a new urban construction model for flood management,
strengthening ecological infrastructure and drainage systems. It can
alleviate urban flooding, water resources shortage, and the urban heat
island effect and improve the ecological environment and biodiversity by
absorbing and capturing rain water and utilizing it to reduce floods. Rain
water harvested can be repurposed for irrigation and for home use. It is a
form of a sustainable drainage system on an urban scale and beyond. Sponge
city policies are a set of nature based solutions that use natural
landscapes to catch, store and clean water; the concept has been inspired
by ancient wisdom of adaptation to climate challenges, particularly in the
monsoon world.
Rainwater Harvesting is the collection and storage of rain, rather
than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like
surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or
borehole), aquifer, or a reservoir with percolation, so that it seeps down
and restores the ground water. Dew and fog can also be collected with nets
or other tools. Rainwater harvesting differs from stormwater harvesting as
the runoff is typically collected from roofs and other surfaces for
storage and subsequent reuse. Its uses include watering gardens,
livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic
heating. The harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage
or groundwater recharge. Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and
oldest methods of self-supply of water for households, having been used in
South Asia and other countries for many thousands of years. Installations
can be designed for different scales including households, neighbourhoods
and communities and can also be designed to serve institutions such as
schools, hospitals and other public facilities.
Rain
Harvesting Barrels (amazon) -
Rain
Barrel -
Rainwater
HarvestingWater Tanks -
Water Barrels -
Rain Water Collection (Tank Town) -
Rain Scaping
-
Rain
Catchers -
Rain
Harvesting Barrels (amazon) -
Rain
Barrel -
Water Storage Tanks -
Water Storage Tanks
Water Tank
is a container for storing water. The need for a water tank is as old as
civilization, to provide storage of water for use in many applications,
drinking water, irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural
farming, both for plants and livestock, chemical manufacturing, food
preparation as well as many other uses. Water tank parameters include the
general design of the tank, and choice of construction materials, linings.
Various materials are used for making a water tank: plastics
(polyethylene, polypropylene), fiberglass, concrete, stone, steel (welded
or bolted, carbon, or stainless). Earthen pots also function as water
storages. Water tanks are an efficient way to help developing countries to
store clean water.
A 1000 square foot roof will collect 620 gallons of
water from 1 inch of rain. A 240 square foot roof will collect around 40
gallons of water from a quarter inch of rain.
Rainwater Collection Calculator.
DIY Rain Barrel System -
BPA Free & FDA Approved Barrels for Drinking Water.
Rain
Catchers (saving some of the rain to use at a later time)
Saving Rain Tools
Snowpack forms from layers of
snow that accumulate
in geographic regions and high altitudes where the climate includes cold
weather for extended periods during the year. Snowpacks are an important
water resource that feed streams and rivers as they melt. Therefore,
snowpacks are both the drinking water source for many communities and a
potential source of flooding (in case of sudden melting). Snowpacks also
contribute mass to glaciers in their accumulation zone.
Snowmelt is surface runoff produced from melting
snow. It can also be used to describe the period or season during which
such runoff is produced. Water produced by snowmelt is an important part
of the annual water cycle in many parts of the world, in some cases
contributing high fractions of the annual runoff in a watershed.
Predicting snowmelt runoff from a drainage basin may be a part of
designing water control projects. Rapid snowmelt can cause flooding. If
the snowmelt is then frozen, very dangerous conditions and accidents can
occur, introducing the need for salt to melt the
Ice.
Meltwater is water released by the melting of
snow or ice, including glacial ice, tabular icebergs and ice shelves over
oceans. Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers, where
the rate of snow cover is reducing. Meltwater can be produced during
volcanic eruptions, in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars
form.
How Much Water Do I Use
'You can’t manage what you don’t
measure.'
Water Management
is the activity of planning, developing, distributing
and managing the optimum use of water resources. It is a sub-set of water
cycle management. Ideally, water resource management
planning has regard
to all the competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an
equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands. As with other resource
management, this is rarely possible in practice.
Water Conservation -
Tools -
Rain
Water Sense (EPA) -
Water Use Today (EPA)
Water Home Use -
Average Water Use
Water Use
by State Info-Graph (image)
Water Consumption Calculator
Water Use it Wisely
Virtual Water
refers to the hidden flow of water if food or other commodities are traded
from one place to another. For instance, it takes 1,340 cubic meters of
water (based on the world average) to produce one metric tonne of wheat.
The precise volume can be more or less depending on climatic conditions
and agricultural practice. Hoekstra and Chapagain have defined the
virtual-water content of a product (a commodity, good or service) as "the
volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured at the place
where the product was actually produced". It refers to the sum of the
water use in the various steps of the production chain.
Water Footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to
consumption of people. The water footprint of an individual, community or
business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the
goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by
the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated)
and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for
any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family,
village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public
organization, private enterprise or economic sector), for a single process
(such as growing rice) or for any product or service. Traditionally, water
use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the
following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the domestic,
agricultural and industrial sector. While this does provide valuable data,
it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in
which products are not always consumed in their country of origin.
International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect
creates a global flow of virtual water, or embodied water (akin to the
concept of embodied energy). In 2002, the water footprint concept was
introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use,
that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional
production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the
ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint
is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water
use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how
economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate
water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice
versa).
80 percent of the Fresh Water withdrawn
from rivers and groundwater is used to produce food and other agricultural
products.
Water for Farming Use -
Irrigation -
Vertical Farming uses 90%
less water.
Did you know that
it takes almost 2,000 gallons of water to
produce 1 pound of meat?
It takes around 1 gallon of water to produce one almond.
It takes almost 25 gallons of water to produce 1 pound of wheat.
It takes around 16 gallons water to make a single cup of beer.
Did you know that a
Mediterranean Diet causes less pollution?
How much water is needed to make your Food (calculator)?
8-minute shower runs through about 20 gallons of water on
average.
Nebia Shower Head uses 70% Less WaterTeaching people about
cause
and effect is extremely important.
Nearly one person in six lives
without regular access to safe drinking water, and more than
twice that many lack access to
Adequate Sanitation.
Water-related diseases kill a child every eight seconds, and are
responsible for 80 percent of all easily
preventable illnesses
and deaths in the developing world.
Droppler: Know your Habits. Save Water
"Things that are widely used by many life forms can have an
impact to the health of our earth and it's inhabitants. Please
don't hurt the water, it has given us life for millions of
years."
Drought Shame App -
Drought Information
Power Plants draw more Fresh Water than any other consumer in the United
States, accounting for more than 50 percent of the nation's
freshwater use at about 500 billion gallons daily. To help save this
water, researchers have developed a new silica filter for power plant
cooling waters that decreases the amount of freshwater power plants
consume by increasing the number of times cooling tower water can be
reused and recycled.
Recycling Water - Water Saving Tools
Living Machines form of ecological sewage treatment
designed to mimic the cleansing functions of wetlands.
Living Machines -
Living Machine -
Todd Ecological
-
Bio-Mimicry
Grey Water People -
Flotender -
Grey Water Action -
Grey Water Sustainable Sources
Biopore Holes not only
helps to absorb rainwater, but also functions as a waste
management system for organic waste.
Wells -
Groasis Aquapro Water Box
-
Water Tanks
Hippo Roller -
15 Methods for Transporting Water
Rain Reserve -
Enviro Sink
-
Rain (knowledge)
Transporting Water :
Water Transportation
is the intentional movement by water over large distances. Methods of
transportation fall into three categories: Aqueducts, which include
pipelines, canals, and tunnels, container shipment, which includes
transport by tank truck, tank car, and tank ship, and towing, where a
tugboat is used to pull an iceberg or a large water bag along behind it.
Water Conservation
Water Conservation includes all the policies,
strategies and activities made to sustainably manage the natural resource
fresh water, to protect the water environment, and to meet current and
future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and affluence
all affect how much water is used. Factors such as climate change have
increased pressures on natural water resources especially in manufacturing
and agricultural
irrigation. Many US cities have already implemented
policies aimed at water conservation, with much success. The goals of
water conservation efforts include: Ensuring availability of water for
future generations where the withdrawal of freshwater from an ecosystem
does not exceed its natural replacement rate. Energy conservation as water
pumping, delivery and wastewater treatment facilities consume a
significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world over 15% of
total electricity consumption is devoted to water management. Habitat
conservation where minimizing human water use helps to preserve freshwater
habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, but also water
quality. The key activities that benefit water conservation are as follows: Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use and waste of resources.
Avoiding any damage to
water quality. Improving water management practices
that reduce the use or enhance the beneficial use of water.
Water Conserve -
Tips -
Soft Water PathMeasuring
Water Usage -
Saving Water Tools
Water Saving Toilets -
Toilets (types) -
Toilet Condensation or toilet sweats.
Meet Flo is a comprehensive water
monitoring and shut-off system with leak detection and proactive leak
prevention technologies. Via its smartphone dashboard, Flo by Moen
provides the ability to monitor and control your water remotely, while
empowering conservation efforts. See how much water you’re consuming with
daily trends.
Showers that save water
Recycling Shower
Eva Smart Shower
1.6 GPM Showerhead (amazon)
Nebia Shower System
Cirrus Shower uses 75 percent less water.
Altered Nozzle
changes your existing faucet saving 98% water.
Drybath
helps keep the body clean without water.
Hygiene
Water 2 Save water management service.
Water Saving Tools for home and yard.
Water Saver Technologies
Niagara Conservation
Conserv Co
Dry
Planet
Slow Growing Grass needs less water
Energy Saving Tools
Ancient intervention could boost dwindling water reserves in coastal Peru.
Ancient Peruvian civilizations in 600 AD created systems within mountains
to divert excess rainwater from source streams onto mountain slopes and
through rocks. The water would take some months to trickle through the
system and resurface downstream -- just in time for the dry season
Swimming Pools
Ionized Swimming Pool -
Chlorine Free Swimming Pools.
Chemical Free Swimming Pools
-
Very Low Energy Consumption & Healthy.
Aqua-Scapes Pool
-
Biological and Natural Swimming Pools using no chemicals.
Hidden Dual Purpose Pools
Swim in Place Pool
Swimming Machine is a resistance swimming apparatus,
often self-contained, enabling the swimmer to swim in place. This may be
accomplished either by accelerating the water past the swimmer or by
supporting the swimmer, either in water or on dry land.
Swimex
Swimming Knowledge
Nemo 33 in Uccle, Belgium is the deepest indoor
swimming pool in the world.
World's Largest Outdoor Pool At Chile's San Alfonso
del Mar Resort.
Flowavett Wave Pool
Delta Flume wave generator that is capable of
producing waves as tall as five meters the world's
largest artificial waves.
In one of every eight pools
inspected, the violations were so serious the
pools were forced to close immediately. Improperly
maintained pools have been linked to a variety of
accidents and illnesses, from drowning to intestinal
parasites, the CDC said. About 4,000 people drown in
pools and elsewhere each year in the United States, and
there were nearly 350 disease outbreaks linked to pools
from 2003 to 2012.
Automatic Watering Systems
CONTINENTAL AWS-10 Automatic Watering System for containers (amazon)
Single-Dial Water Timer (amazon)
Drip Irrigation Spikes (amazon) -
Watering Spikes (amazon)
Tree I.V.® Portable Watering System 6-pack (amazon)
How to install an automated drip irrigation system video with
Thompson & Morgan (youtube)
Automatic Drip Irrigation Kit
Potted Plants Watering System Kit.
Automatic drip irrigation system for
large size ( 10-inch pots or bigger) potted plants.
Waters directly into plant roots avoiding evaporation Equipped
with 4 color-coded drippers with daily water release: 3.4
ounce-20 days, 5.1 ounce-13 days, 6.8 ounce-10 days, 10.1 ounce-6 days.
Water Knowledge - Basic Facts about Water
H2O - There are 3 Atoms in a
water molecule, 2
hydrogen atoms (H), and 1
oxygen atom (O).
Dihydrogen monoxide is a name for the water molecule, also known as
dihydrogen oxide, hydroxyl acid or hydroxylic acid.
Water is a polar
inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless
liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This simplest
hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and
is described as the "
universal solvent" for
its ability to dissolve many substances. This allows it to be the "
solvent
of life": indeed, water as found in nature almost always includes various
dissolved substances, and special steps are required to obtain chemically
pure water. Water is the only common substance to
exist as a
solid, liquid, and
gas in normal terrestrial conditions.
Along with oxidane, water is one of the two official names for the
chemical compound H2O; it is also
the liquid phase of H2O. The other two common states of matter of water
are the solid phase,
ice, and the gaseous phase, water
vapor or steam. The addition or removal of heat can cause phase
transitions: freezing (water to ice), melting (ice to water), vaporization
(water to vapor), condensation (vapor to water), sublimation (ice to
vapor) and deposition (vapor to ice). Because of its polarity, a molecule
of water in the liquid or solid state can form up to four
hydrogen bonds with neighboring
molecules. Hydrogen bonds are about ten times as strong as the
Van der Waals force that attracts molecules to each other in most
liquids. This is the reason why the melting and
boiling
points of water are much higher than those of other analogous
compounds like hydrogen sulfide. They also explain its exceptionally high
specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/g/K), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g),
heat of vaporization (2257 J/g), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561
and 0.679 W/m/K). These properties make water more effective at moderating
Earth's climate, by storing heat and transporting it between the oceans
and the atmosphere. The hydrogen bonds of water are around 23 kJ/mol
(compared to a covalent O-H bond at 492 kJ/mol). Of this, it is estimated
that 90% is attributable to electrostatics, while the remaining 10% is
partially covalent. These bonds are the cause of water's high
surface tension and
capillary
forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move
up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied
upon by all vascular plants, such as trees. The diameter of a water
molecule is closely calculated to be about 0.000282 µm (
micrometers
– millionths of a meter) in diameter. Water splits into Hydrogen Ions (H+)
and Hydroxyl Ions (OH-). When there are equal parts of Hydrogen Ions (H+)
and Hydroxyl Ions (OH-) leading to a 1:1 ratio, pH is neutral (7). When
they dissociate to form ions, water molecules therefore form a positively
charged H+ ion and a negatively charged OH- ion. The fact that water
molecules dissociate to form H+ and OH- ions, which can then recombine to
form water molecules.
An individual molecule of H2O doesn’t have any of the observable
properties we associate with water. A glass of water, pure as water
can be, is better understood as containing H2O, OH–, H3O+ and other
related but less common ions, and even this is a vast oversimplification
(if we could get truly pure water, which we cannot). Our current best
understanding of the electron transfers that give water the properties we
observe is a statistical average of ever changing interactions so complex
as to be quite literally unthinkable. Indeed, the problem is “not that we
are unsure which (distribution of types of) microstructure is the correct
one. The point is that there is no one correct microstructure, because the
microstructure depends as much on the context and functions just as
another nominal essence would. To produce two molecules of water (H2O),
two molecules of diatomic hydrogen (H2) must be combined with one molecule
of diatomic oxygen (O2). Energy will be released in the process. 2H2 + O2
= 2H2O + Energy.
"Earth was born with water. Water is Life - Water
is Sacred."
Influence of protons on water molecules. How hydrogen ions or protons
interact with their aqueous environment has great practical relevance,
whether in fuel cell technology or in the life sciences. Now, a large
international consortium at the X-ray source
BESSY II
has investigated this question experimentally in detail and discovered new
phenomena. For example, the presence of a proton changes the electronic
structure of the three innermost water molecules, but also has an effect
via a long-range field on a hydrate shell of five other water molecules.
Hydrosphere is the
combined mass of water found on, under, and above the
surface of a planet, minor planet or
natural satellite. It has been estimated that there are 1386 million cubic
kilometers of water on Earth. This includes water in
liquid and
frozen
forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes and streams.
Saltwater accounts for
97.5% of this amount. Fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh
water, 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Arctic,
the Antarctic, and mountain glaciers. 30.8% is in the form of fresh
groundwater.
Only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible
lakes, reservoirs and river systems. The total mass of the Earth's
hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1018 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's
total mass. About 20 × 1012 tonnes of this is in Earth's
atmosphere (for
practical purposes, 1 cubic metre of water weighs one tonne).
Approximately 75% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square
kilometers (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean. The average
salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea
water (3.5%).
Fluid Liquid.
Water Cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above and
below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly
constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major
reservoirs of
ice, fresh water,
saline water and atmospheric water is
variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves
from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the
ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of
evaporation,
condensation,
precipitation, infiltration,
surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the
water goes through different forms:
liquid, solid (ice) and
vapor. The
water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature
changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings
and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms
the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate. The evaporative
phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across
the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the
Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water
cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on
the planet.
Hydrological Cycle of the earth
is the sum total of all processes in which water moves from the land and
ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of precipitation. The
hydrological cycle is dependent on various factors and is equally affected
by oceans and land surfaces.
Water Cycle.
Condensation is the change of the physical
state of matter from gas phase into liquid
phase, and is the reverse of
evaporation. The word most often refers to
the water cycle. It can also be defined as the change in the state of
water vapour to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid
surface or cloud condensation nuclei within the
atmosphere. When the
transition happens from the gaseous phase into the solid phase directly,
the change is called deposition.
Distill.
Dew
Point is the
temperature at which a given
concentration of water vapor in air will form dew. More specifically it is
a measure of atmospheric moisture. It is the temperature to which air must
be cooled at constant pressure and water content to reach saturation. A
higher dew point indicates more moisture in the air; a dew point greater
than 20 °C (68 °F) is considered uncomfortable and greater than 22 °C (72
°F) is considered to be extremely humid. Frost point is the dew point when
temperatures are below freezing.
Weather
(wind)
Humidity -
Liquids -
Viscosity -
Heat
-
Boiling Water -
Ice
Interesting Facts about Water -
Memory -
Interesting Information about Water.
Water Vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state
of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the
evaporation or boiling of
liquid water or from the sublimation of
Ice.
Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical
atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by
evaporation and removed by
condensation. It is lighter than air and
triggers
convection currents that can lead to
clouds.
Vaporization of an
element or
compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are
two types of vaporization: evaporation and
boiling.
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, whereas boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
Volatile.
Evaporation is a type of
vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the
surface of a liquid into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the
evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization is
boiling, which is
characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase.
Steam produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in
a saturated vapor phase. Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid
phase below the melting point, as commonly observed with
ice at or below
freezing or moth crystals (napthalene or paradichlorobenzene), is called
sublimation,
which is the phase transition of a substance directly from the solid to
the gas phase without passing through the intermediate l
iquid phase.
Sublimation is an endothermic process that occurs at temperatures and
pressures below a substance's triple point in its phase diagram. The
reverse process of sublimation is
deposition or desublimation, in which a substance passes directly from
a gas to a solid phase. Sublimation has also been used as a generic term
to describe a solid-to-gas transition (sublimation) followed by a
gas-to-solid transition (deposition).
Melting -
Transpiration -
Heat (hot
air)
Convection is the
heat transfer due to bulk movement of molecules
within fluids such as gases and
liquids, including molten rock (rheid).
Convection takes place through advection, diffusion or both. The movement
caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense
material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence
of gravity, which consequently results in transfer of heat.
Advection is the transport of a substance by bulk motion. The
properties of that substance are carried with it. Generally the majority
of the advected substance is a
fluid. The
properties that are carried with the advected substance are conserved
properties such as energy. An example of advection is the transport of
pollutants or silt in a river by bulk water flow downstream. Another
commonly advected quantity is energy or enthalpy. Here the fluid may be
any material that contains
thermal energy,
such as water or air. In general, any substance or conserved, extensive
quantity can be advected by a fluid that can hold or contain the quantity
or substance. During advection, a fluid transports some conserved quantity
or material via bulk motion. The fluid's motion is described
mathematically as a vector field, and the transported material is
described by a scalar field showing its distribution over space. Advection
requires currents in the fluid, and so cannot happen in rigid solids. It
does not include transport of substances by molecular diffusion. Advection
is sometimes confused with the more encompassing process of convection
which is the combination of advective transport and diffusive transport.
In meteorology and physical oceanography, advection often refers to the
transport of some property of the atmosphere or ocean, such as heat,
humidity (see moisture) or salinity. Advection is important for the
formation of orographic clouds and the precipitation of water from clouds,
as part of the hydrological cycle.
Water Density achieves its maximum at 4 degrees Celsius or 39.2
degrees Fahrenheit. As water drops below that temperature, it becomes less
dense, which is why
ice floats. Density: 997 kg/m³.
Density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.
Mass Concentration (wiki)
Relative Density is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume)
of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific
gravity for liquids is nearly always measured with respect to water at its
densest (at 4 °C or 39.2 °F); for gases, air at room temperature (20 °C or
68 °F) is the reference. The term "relative density" is often preferred in scientific usage.
Dehydration - Electrolytes
Dehydration is a deficit of total body water, with
an accompanying disruption of
metabolic processes.
Dehydration can also cause
hypernatremia, which is a high
sodium ion level in
the
blood. Dehydration is distinct from hypovolemia (loss of blood volume,
particularly plasma). Dehydration occurs when
free water loss exceeds free
water intake, usually due to
exercise or disease, but also due to high
environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by
immersion
diuresis and this may increase risk of decompression sickness in
divers. Most people can tolerate a three to four percent decrease in total
body water without difficulty or adverse health effects. A five to eight
percent decrease can cause
fatigue and
dizziness. Loss of over ten percent
of total body water can cause physical and mental deterioration,
accompanied by severe thirst.
Death occurs at a loss of between fifteen
and twenty-five percent of the body water, or 12-18 pounds of
water. Mild dehydration is
characterized by thirst and general discomfort and is usually resolved
with oral rehydration.
A person can live about 3
days without water. When extremely dehydrated,
drinking too much water too quickly can be
dangerous and lead to electrolyte imbalance. Treatment with
intravenous fluids should begin as soon as you can get medical care.
IV fluids are usually a saline solution, made of water, sodium, and other
electrolytes. By getting fluids through an IV rather than by drinking
them, your body can absorb them more quickly and recover faster. Our
bodies can release over half a liter of fluid at night when we sleep.
Daily fluid intake recommends 125 ounces or 3.7 liters for men, and 91
ounces or 2.7 liters for women. Almost a gallon a day.
Electrolytes -
Sweating (exercise - hot
days) -
Hyperthermia
Mouth is Dry. The
darker
the
urine, the more dehydrated you are. Test the
elasticity of your skin by
pinching the back of your hand and hold it for a few seconds. Let go and
if the little "tent" stays pinched and takes more than 5 seconds to go
back to normal, it's usually a sign of moderate dehydration.
Sugary drinks cause you to lose more body
fluid. Sugary drinks create an acidic environment that can impair enzyme
function and decrease your
body’s water storage capacity, which is
necessary to
metabolize all the extra sugar.
High-Protein intake causes the body has to use more water to
metabolize the naturally occurring nitrogen in protein, and cells can
become water-depleted.
Salty Foods increase
fluid loss in your body because water is needed to eliminate all the extra
sodium naturally present in salt.
Xerostomia also known as
dry mouth and
dry mouth syndrome, is dryness in the mouth, which may be associated with
a change in the composition of saliva, or reduced
salivary flow, or
have no identifiable cause. This symptom is very common and is often seen
as a side effect of many types of medication. It is more common in older
people (mostly because this group tend to take several medications) and in
persons who breathe through their mouths (
mouthbreathing).
Dehydration, radiotherapy involving the salivary glands, chemotherapy and
several diseases can cause hyposalivation or a change in saliva
consistency and hence a complaint of xerostomia. Sometimes there is no
identifiable cause, and there may be a psychogenic reason for the
complaint.
Diuretic is any substance that promotes diuresis, that is, the
increased production of
urine.
This includes forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics.
All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each
class does so in a distinct way. Alternatively, an antidiuretic such as
vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone, is an agent or drug which reduces
the excretion of water in urine.
Water pH
(acidity-alkaline).
Antidiuretic Hormone is a chemical produced
in the brain that
causes the kidneys to release
less water, decreasing the amount of urine produced. A
high ADH level causes the body to produce
less urine. A
low level results in greater
urine production.
Vasopressin is a hormone synthesized as a peptide prohormone in
neurons in the
hypothalamus, and is
converted to AVP. It then travels down the axon of that cell, which
terminates in the posterior pituitary, and is released from vesicles into
the circulation in response to extracellular fluid hypertonicity (
hyperosmolality).
AVP has two primary functions. First, it increases the amount of
solute-free water reabsorbed back into the circulation from the filtrate
in the kidney tubules of the nephrons. Second, AVP constricts arterioles,
which increases peripheral vascular resistance and raises arterial blood
pressure. A third function is possible. Some AVP may be released directly
into the brain from the hypothalamus, and may play an important role in
social behavior, sexual motivation and pair bonding, and maternal
responses to stress. Vasopressin induces differentiation of stem cells
into cardiomyocytes and promotes heart muscle homeostasis.
Getting parched can fuzz attentiveness and make it harder to solve
problems. Dehydration can easily put a dent in those and other
cognitive functions.
How Tardigrades Bear Dehydration. A new mechanism explains how water
bears survive in some extreme conditions. They explored proteins that form
a gel during cellular dehydration. This gel stiffens to support and
protect the cells from mechanical stress that would otherwise kill them.
These proteins have also been shown to work in insect cells and even show
limited functionality in human cultured cells.
A sugar called trehalose works with proteins to allow tardigrades to
survive a severe lack of water.
Overhydrating
or
drinking too much water can have
negative effects and do more harm than good. Adults should drink between
2.5 and 4.5 liters of water a day depending on their body weight and level
of activity. This can be in the form of plain water, or it can come
through fruit, herbal teas, or other fluids. Water needs vary based on
numerous factors. As drinking too much water can disrupt your body's
electrolyte balance and lead to hyponatremia, 3 liters (100 ounces) may be
too much for some people. Drinking water before bed has a number of
benefits, but,
drinking water too close to bedtime
can interrupt your sleep cycle and negatively impact heart health.
You must drink enough water throughout the day to avoid dehydration and
prevent excess water intake at night. One sign of dehydration is dark
urine. Some people overly aggressively, out of a fear
of dehydration, drink so much water that they dilute their blood and
their brain swells.
Dosage.
Hyponatremia is a
low
sodium level in the blood. It is generally defined as a sodium
concentration of less than 135 mmol/L (135 mEq/L), with severe
hyponatremia being below 120 mEql/L. Symptoms can be absent, mild or
severe. Mild symptoms include a decreased ability to think, headaches,
nausea, and poor balance. Severe symptoms include confusion, seizures, and
coma. The causes of hyponatremia are typically classified by a person's
body fluid status into low volume, normal volume, or high volume. Low
volume hyponatremia can occur from diarrhea, vomiting, diuretics, and
sweating. Normal volume hyponatremia is divided into cases with dilute
urine and concentrated urine. Cases in which the urine is dilute include
adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism, and drinking too much water or too
much beer. Cases in which the urine is concentrated include syndrome of
inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH). High volume
hyponatremia can occur from heart failure, liver failure, and kidney
failure. Conditions that can lead to falsely low sodium measurements
include high blood protein levels such as in multiple myeloma, high blood
fat levels, and high blood sugar. Treatment is based on the underlying
cause. Correcting hyponatremia too quickly can lead to complications.
Rapid partial correction with 3% normal saline is only recommended in
those with significant symptoms and occasionally those in whom the
condition was of rapid onset. Low volume hyponatremia is typically treated
with intravenous normal saline. SIADH is typically treated with fluid
restriction while high volume hyponatremia is typically treated with both
fluid restriction and a diet low in salt. Correction should generally be
gradual in those in whom the low levels have been present for more than
two days. Hyponatremia occurs in about 20% of those admitted to hospital
and 10% of people during or after an endurance sporting event. Among those
in hospital, hyponatremia is associated with an increased risk of death.
The economic costs of hyponatremia are estimated at $2.6 billion in the
United States.
Water Intoxication also known as
water poisoning or hyperhydration, is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions that
results when the normal balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed
outside safe limits by
overhydration.
A Dad Didn't Brush
His Teeth For 40 Days. This Is What Happened To His Kidneys (youtube)
Mapping the Neural Circuit Governing Thirst. Hierarchical Excitatory
Neural Circuits That Drive Drinking. There are three regions in the mouse
brain that are known to process thirst: the
subfornical organ (SFO), the
organum vasculosum laminae terminalis (OVLT), and the
median preoptic nucleus (MnPO). Together, these regions form a
sheet-like structure in the forebrain (near the front of the brain) called
the lamina terminalis (LT). Most regions of the brain are protected by the
nearly impenetrable
blood-brain barrier, a
layer of tightly packed cells that separates the bloodstream from the
brain. But this is not the case for the SFO and OVLT -- they interface
directly with a mouse's bloodstream, allowing the two regions to measure
the
sodium content, or
saltiness, of the blood, which indicates the level of hydration.
Therefore, the LT serves as the primary structure involved in thirst
regulation. When you are dehydrated, you may gulp down water for several
seconds and you feel satisfied. However, at that point your blood is not
rehydrated yet: it usually takes about 10 to 15 minutes. Therefore, the
SFO and the OVLT would not be able to detect blood rehydration soon after
drinking. Nevertheless, the brain somehow knows when to stop drinking even
before the body is fully rehydrated. Because of this temporal discrepancy
between body rehydration and satiation signals in the brain, the
researchers reasoned that some kind of rapid signal must be suppressing
drinking behavior.
Transepidermal Water Loss is defined as the measurement of the
quantity of water that passes from inside a body (animal or plant) through
the epidermal layer (
skin)
to the surrounding atmosphere via diffusion and evaporation processes.
Shenu: Hydrolemic System (video)
SIPPO: Smart Cup Hydration made Easy
Electrolyte Imbalance. Electrolytes play a vital
role in maintaining
homeostasis within the body. They help to regulate
heart and neurological function, fluid balance, oxygen delivery,
acid–base
balance and much more. Electrolyte imbalances can develop by the following
mechanisms: excessive ingestion; diminished elimination of an electrolyte;
diminished ingestion or
excessive elimination of an electrolyte. The most
serious electrolyte disturbances involve abnormalities in the levels of
sodium,
potassium or
calcium. Other electrolyte imbalances are less
common, and often occur in conjunction with major electrolyte changes.
Chronic laxative abuse or severe diarrhea or vomiting (gastroenteritis)
can lead to electrolyte disturbances along with
dehydration. People
suffering from
bulimia or
anorexia nervosa are at especially high risk for
an electrolyte imbalance.
Nuun Performance
Hydration (amazon)
Sodium: 380 mg -
Potassium: 200-210 mg -
Magnesium: 20 mg -
Calcium: 15 mg.
Chloride: 80 mg - 15 grams of
carbohydrates.
Ingredients: Dextrose, Cane
Sugar (vegan), Dried Fruit Powder, Sodium Citrate, Citric Acid, Potassium
Citrate, Potassium Chloride, Magnesium Citrate, Calcium Citrate.
Electrolytes in Batteries.
Fluid Balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of
living organisms in which the amount of water in the organism needs to be
controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations
of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept
within healthy ranges. The core principle of fluid balance is that the
amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken
in; for example, in human homeostasis, the output (via respiration,
perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the
input (via eating, drinking, and parenteral intake). Euvolemia is the
state of normal body fluid volume, including blood volume, interstitial
fluid volume, and intracellular fluid volume; hypovolemia and hypervolemia
are imbalances. Water is necessary for all life on Earth. Humans can
survive for 4 to 6 weeks without food but only for a few days without
water. Profuse
Sweating can increase the
need for electrolyte replacement. Water-electrolyte imbalance produces
headache and fatigue if mild; illness if moderate, and sometimes even
death if severe. For example, water intoxication (which results in
hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be
fatal. Deficits to body water result in volume contraction and
dehydration. Diarrhea is a threat to both body water volume and
electrolyte levels, which is why diseases that cause diarrhea are great
threats to fluid balance.
Thirst is the craving for fluids, resulting in the basic
instinct of animals to drink. It is an essential mechanism involved in
fluid balance. It arises from a lack of fluids or an increase in the
concentration of certain osmolites, such as salt. If the water volume of
the body falls below a certain threshold or the osmolite concentration
becomes too high, the brain signals thirst. Continuous
dehydration can cause many problems, but is
most often associated with renal problems and neurological problems such
as seizures. Excessive thirst, known as polydipsia, along with excessive
urination, known as polyuria, may be an indication of diabetes mellitus or
diabetes insipidus. There are receptors and other systems in the body that
detect a decreased volume or an increased osmolite concentration. They
signal to the central nervous system, where central processing succeeds.
Some sources, therefore, distinguish "extracellular thirst" from
"intracellular thirst", where extracellular thirst is thirst generated by
decreased volume and intracellular thirst is thirst generated by increased
osmolite concentration. Nevertheless, the craving itself is something
generated from central processing in the brain, no matter how it is
detected.
Thirst Regulation is
related to two types of brain cells, one that responds to a decline in
fluid in our bodies, while the other monitors levels of salt and other
minerals. These specialized thirst cells seem to determine whether animals
and people crave pure water or some other drink that contains salt and
other minerals.
The cellular basis of distinct thirst modalities. Fluid intake is an
essential innate behaviour that is mainly caused by two distinct types of
thirst1–3. Increased blood osmolality induces osmotic thirst that drives
animals to consume pure water. Conversely, the loss of body fluid induces
hypovolaemic thirst, in which animals seek both water and minerals (salts)
to recover blood volume. Circumventricular organs in the lamina terminalis
are critical sites for sensing both types of thirst-inducing stimulus4–6.
However, how different thirst modalities are encoded in the brain remains
unknown. Here we employed stimulus-to-cell-type mapping using single-cell
RNA sequencing to identify the cellular substrates that underlie distinct
types of thirst. These studies revealed diverse types of?excitatory and
inhibitory neuron in each circumventricular organ structure. We show that
unique combinations of these?neuron types are activated under osmotic and
hypovolaemic stresses.
Integration of Hypernatremia and Angiotensin II by the Organum Vasculosum
of the Lamina Terminalis Regulates Thirst. The organum vasculosum of
the lamina terminalis (OVLT) contains NaCl-sensitive neurons to regulate
thirst, neuroendocrine function, and autonomic outflow. The OVLT also
expresses the angiotensin II (AngII) type1 receptor, and AngII increases
Fos expression in OVLT neurons. The present study tested whether
individual OVLT neurons sensed both NaCl and AngII to regulate thirst and
body fluid homeostasis.
Urine -
Water TherapyA full
bladder is about the size of a soft ball: When your bladder is full,
holding up to 800
cubic centimeters of fluid, or 27.0512 Fluid Ounces.
Drinking Room Temperature Water - Drinking Cold Water
Drink cold water to cool down. Drink room temperature water for
digestion,
detox, and
pain relief. When you drink cold
water, your blood vessels shrink, and this restricts your digestion. Warm
water helps break down food, aids constipation, and even helps you lose
weight while improving your blood circulation. Room temperature can even
help stop pains like a headache. Cold water is not bad for you or
better for you, is just that the different water temperatures help your
body in different ways. When cold water hits the stomach, the body is
forced to use
energy
in order to warm up that liquid inside your body to match that of the
body's natural temperature. Instead of working to extract all the foods
nutrients, your
digestive system is instead working on regulating the temperature of the
cold drink.
Water between 50 and 72 degrees allows
our bodies to rehydrate faster because it is absorbed more quickly.
Drinking warm water increases blood circulation along with protecting
internal organs from damage. This is why most health professionals
recommend drinking warm water for optimal health. However, on a hot day,
you can drink cold water as it cools your body temperature quickly.
Body Temperatures -
Ice Water Therapy
Body Water is the
water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the
blood, the bones and elsewhere. This water makes up a significant fraction
of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount
of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis.
The average human adult male is approximately 69%
water, by weight.
The average human being consists of about 7 x 1027
atoms (7,000 trillion trillion atoms) — 65 percent oxygen, 18
percent carbon, 10 percent hydrogen, 3 percent nitrogen, 1.4
percent calcium, 1.1 percent phosphorous, and traces of 54 other
chemical elements.
Composition of the Human Body (wiki)
Hydrocephalus is
an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the
brain.
Cerebrospinal Fluid is a clear, colorless body fluid found in
the
brain and spine. It is produced in the choroid plexuses of the
ventricles of the brain. It acts as a cushion or buffer for the brain's
cortex, providing basic mechanical and immunological protection to the
brain inside the skull. The
CSF also serves a vital function in cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow.
Body Fluids or biofluids are liquids originating from inside the
bodies of
living people. They include fluids that are excreted or secreted from the
body as well as body water that normally is not. (
Drool) The dominating content of
body fluids is body water. Approximately 60-65% of body water is contained
within the cells (in intracellular fluid) with the other 35-40% of body
water contained outside the cells (in extracellular fluid). This fluid
component outside the cells includes the fluid between the cells
(interstitial fluid), lymph and blood. There are approximately 6 to 10
liters of lymph in the body, compared to 3.5 to 5 liters of blood.
Liquids - Fluids
Liquid is a nearly
incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but
retains a nearly constant volume independent of
pressure. Liquid is
one of the
four fundamental states of matter,
with the others being solid, gas,
and plasma, and is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed
shape. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as
atoms, held together by
intermolecular bonds. Water is by far the most
common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to
flow and take the
shape of a container. Most liquids resist compression, although others can
be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every
space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A
distinctive property of the liquid state is
surface tension, leading to
wetting phenomena. The
density of a liquid is usually close to that of a
solid, and much higher than in a gas. Therefore, liquid and solid are both
termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the
ability to flow, they are both called fluids. Although liquid water is
abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in
the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow
temperature/pressure range to exist.
Most known matter in the universe is
in
gaseous form (with traces of detectable solid matter) as interstellar
clouds or in plasma form within
stars.
Phases of Water -
Water Basics -
Surface Tension -
Viscosity -
Pressure -
Water in a
Vacuum -
Sound
ShapesMelting
or
fusion, is a physical process that
results in the
phase transition of a
substance from a solid to a liquid. This occurs when the internal energy
of the solid increases, typically by the application of heat or pressure,
which increases the substance's temperature to the melting point. At the
melting point, the ordering of ions or molecules in the solid breaks down
to a less ordered state, and the solid melts to become a liquid.
Hydrophobe is the physical property of a
molecule, known as a hydrophobe,
that is seemingly
repelled from a mass
of water. (Strictly speaking, there is no repulsive force involved; it is
an
absence of attraction.) In contrast,
hydrophiles are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be
nonpolar and, thus, prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar
solvents.
Because water molecules are polar,
hydrophobes do not dissolve
well among them. Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together,
forming micelles. Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high
contact angle. Examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes,
oils, fats, and greasy
substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from
water, the management of oil spills, and chemical
separation processes to
remove non-polar substances from polar compounds. Hydrophobic is often
used interchangeably with lipophilic, "fat-loving". However, the two terms
are not synonymous. While hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic,
there are exceptions, such as the silicones and fluorocarbons.
Oil floats to the top of water because
oil
is less dense than water. Oil and water
don't mix because water molecules
are more attracted to each other than to oil molecules.
Hydrophobic Effect is the observed tendency of
nonpolar substances to
aggregate in an
aqueous solution and exclude water molecules. The word hydrophobic
literally means "
water-fearing", and it describes the segregation of water
and nonpolar substances, which maximizes hydrogen bonding between
molecules of water and minimizes the area of contact between water and
nonpolar molecules. In terms of thermodynamics, the hydrophobic effect is
the free energy change of water surrounding a solute. A positive free
energy change of the surrounding solvent indicates hydrophobicity, whereas
a negative free energy change implies hydrophilicity. The hydrophobic
effect is responsible for the separation of a mixture of oil and water
into its two components. It is also responsible for effects related to
biology, including: cell membrane and vesicle formation, protein folding,
insertion of membrane proteins into the nonpolar lipid environment and
protein-small molecule associations. Hence the hydrophobic effect is
essential to life. Substances for which this effect is observed are known
as hydrophobes. The hydrophilic groups prevent phase separation of the
molecules by maintaining the hydrophobic groups in water through formation
of strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The driving force for this
self-assembly is the hydrophobic effect.
Wax.
Immiscible in
chemistry or physics is something incapable of mixing.
Centrifuge.
How to mix the 'un-mixable'. Imagine making some liquids mix that do
not mix, then unmixing them. In one of the grand challenges of science, a
device which previously 'unboiled' egg protein is now unraveling the
mystery of incompatible fluids -- a development that could enhance many
future products, industrial processes and even the food we eat. Using the
highly advanced rapid fluidic flow techniques possible in the Flinders
vortex fluidic device (VFD), the Australian research team has capped off
10 years of research to find a way to use clean chemistry to unlock the
mystery of 'mixing immiscibles'.
Hydrophile is a
molecule or
other molecular entity that is
attracted
to water molecules and tends to be
dissolved by water. In
contrast, hydrophobes are not attracted to water and may seem to be
repelled by it.
Hydrophilic is having a
tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.
Hydrolysis
(electrolysis).
Amphiphile is a chemical compound possessing both
hydrophilic or
water-loving, polar, and
lipophilic or
fat-loving properties. Such a
compound is called amphiphilic or amphipathic. This forms the basis for a
number of areas of research in chemistry and biochemistry, notably that of
lipid polymorphism. Organic compounds containing hydrophilic groups at
both ends of a prolate (in the aggregate) molecule are called
bolaamphiphilic. Common amphiphilic substances are soaps, detergents and
lipoproteins.
Adhesion is the tendency of
dissimilar particles or surfaces to
cling
to one another, The forces that cause
adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The
intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of
stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion,
dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative
magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent
mechanical effects.
Cohesion in chemistry is the action or property of like molecules
sticking together, being
mutually attractive. Cohesion refers to the
tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to
cling to one another. It is an intrinsic property
of a substance that is caused by the shape and structure of its molecules,
which makes the distribution of orbiting electrons irregular when
molecules get close to one another, creating electrical attraction that
can maintain a microscopic structure such as a water drop. In other words,
cohesion allows for surface tension, creating a "solid-like" state upon
which light-weight or low-density materials can be placed.
Capillary.
Coalesce is to come together to form one
mass or whole. Combine (elements) in a mass or whole.
Emulsion is a
mixture
of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible, or
unmixable
or unblendable. Emulsions are part of a more general class of
two-phase systems of matter called
colloids.
Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used
interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and
continuous, are liquids. In an emulsion, one liquid (the dispersed phase)
is
dispersed in the other (the continuous phase).
Degassed water is water subjected to a
process of
degassing, which essentially consists in the removal of gas dissolved
in the liquid.
Colloid is a mixture
with properties between those of a solution and fine suspension.
Mixture in chemistry is a substance
consisting of two or more substances mixed together, not in fixed
proportions and not with chemical
bonding.
Any foodstuff made by combining different ingredients. A collection
containing a variety of sorts of things
Mix
is to add together different elements. To bring or combine together or
with something else. Add as an additional element or part.
Vinaigrettes are
based on a mixture of salad oil and vinegar, often flavored with herbs,
spices, salt, pepper, sugar, and other ingredients.
Dispersion in chemistry is a system in which discrete particles of one
material are
dispersed in a continuous phase of another material. The two
phases may be in the same or different
states of matter. They are
different from solutions, where dissolved molecules do not form a separate
phase from the solute. Dispersions are classified in a number of different
ways, including how large the particles are in relation to the
particles of the continuous phase, whether or not precipitation occurs,
and the presence of
Brownian motion. In general, dispersions of particles sufficiently
large for sedimentation are called suspensions, while those of smaller
particles are called colloids.
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures. A homogeneous mixture is a
solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has the same proportions of its
components throughout any given sample.
Homogeneity and Heterogeneity are concepts often used in the sciences
and statistics relating to the uniformity in a substance or organism.
Micro-Electro-Fluidic Probe (MeFP) to isolate and pattern cells.
Researchers have developed a dielectrophoresis (DEP) enabled
MicroelectroFluidic Probe (MeFP) that has the ability to sequentially
separate and pattern mammalian cells in an open microfluidic system.
Dielectrophoresis is a phenomenon in which a force is exerted on a
dielectric particle when it is subjected to a non-uniform electric field.
This force does not require the particle to be charged. All particles
exhibit dielectrophoretic activity in the presence of electric fields.
However, the strength of the force depends strongly on the medium and
particles electrical properties, on the particles shape and size, as well
as on the frequency of the electric field. Consequently, fields of a
particular frequency can manipulate particles with great selectivity. This
has allowed, for example, the separation of cells or the orientation and
manipulation of nanoparticles and nanowires. Furthermore, a study of the
change in DEP force as a function of frequency can allow the electrical
(or electrophysiological in the case of cells) properties of the particle
to be elucidated.
New aspect to the way that DNA binds itself, and the role played by
hydrophobic effects. DNA is constructed of two strands, consisting of
sugar molecules and phosphate groups. Between these two strands are
nitrogen bases, the compounds which make up organisms’ genes, with
hydrogen bonds between them. Those hydrogen bonds have sometimes been seen
as crucial to holding the two strands together.
Laminar Flow is characterized by
fluid particles following smooth
paths in layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers
with little or no mixing. At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow
without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like
playing cards. In
fluid dynamics laminar flow occurs when a fluid flows in parallel
layers, with no disruption between the layers. There are no cross-currents perpendicular
to the direction of flow, nor
eddies or swirls of fluids. In laminar flow,
the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles
close to a solid surface
moving in straight lines parallel to that
surface. Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high
momentum diffusion and low momentum convection. When a fluid is
flowing through a closed channel such as a pipe or between two flat
plates, either of two types of flow may occur depending on the velocity
and viscosity of the fluid: laminar flow or turbulent flow. Laminar flow
tends to occur at lower velocities, below a threshold at which it becomes
turbulent. Turbulent flow is a less orderly flow regime that is
characterized by eddies or small packets of fluid particles, which result
in lateral mixing. In non-scientific terms, laminar flow is smooth, while
turbulent flow is rough.
Making a Laminar
Flow Nozzle (youtube) -
Fire Hose (wiki) -
Super-fluidity (viscosity)
Bubble Ring is an underwater
vortex ring
where an air bubble occupies the core of the vortex, forming a ring shape.
The ring of air as well as the nearby water spins poloidally as it travels
through the water, much like a flexible bracelet might spin when it is
rolled on to a person's arm. The faster the bubble ring spins, the more
stable it becomes. Bubble rings and smoke rings are both examples of
vortex rings—the physics of which is still under active study in fluid
dynamics. Devices have been invented which generate bubble vortex rings.
Engineering researchers visualize the motion of vortices in superfluid
turbulence. Researchers have managed to visualize the vortex tubes in
a
quantum fluid, findings that could help researchers better understand
turbulence in quantum fluids and beyond.
Venturi Effect
is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through
a
constricted section (or choke) of a pipe.
The Venturi effect is named after its discoverer, Giovanni Battista
Venturi. In fluid dynamics, an incompressible fluid's velocity must
increase as it passes through a constriction in accord with the
principle of mass continuity, while its static pressure must decrease
in accord with the principle of conservation of mechanical energy
(Bernoulli's principle). Thus, any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may
attain by its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a
drop in pressure.
New quantum whirlpools with tetrahedral symmetries discovered in a
superfluid. An international collaboration of
scientists has created and observed an entirely new class of vortices --
the whirling masses of fluid or air. A new article details laboratory
studies of these 'exotic' whirlpools in an ultracold gas of atoms at
temperatures as low as tens of billionths of a degree above absolute zero.
The discovery may have exciting future implications for implementations of
quantum information and computing.
Light Non-Aqueous
Phase Liquid is a groundwater contaminant that is not soluble in
water and has lower density than water, in contrast to a DNAPL which has
higher density than water. Once a LNAPL infiltrates the ground, it will
stop at the height of the water table because the LNAPL is less dense than
water. A light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) is a groundwater
contaminant that is
not
soluble in water and has lower density than water, in contrast to a
DNAPL which has higher density than water. Once a LNAPL infiltrates the
ground, it will stop at the height of the water table because the LNAPL is
less dense than water. Efforts to locate and remove LNAPLs is relatively
less expensive and easier than for DNAPLs because LNAPLs float on top of
the water in the underground water table. Examples of LNAPLs are benzene,
toluene, xylene, and other hydrocarbons.
Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid is a denser-than-water NAPL, i.e. a
liquid that is both
denser than water and is immiscible in or does not
dissolve in water. The term DNAPL is used primarily by environmental
engineers and hydrogeologists to describe contaminants in groundwater,
surface water and sediments. DNAPLs tends to sink below the water table
when spilled in significant quantities and only stop when they reach
impermeable bedrock. Their penetration into an aquifer makes them
difficult to locate and remediate. Examples of materials that are DNAPLs
when spilled include: chlorinated solvents, such as trichloroethylene,
tetrachloroethene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride. coal
tar, creosote, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), mercury, extra heavy crude
oil, with an API gravity of less than 10.
Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of
attracting and
holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, which is
usually at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either
absorption or
adsorption with the adsorbing substance becoming physically
changed somewhat. This could be an increase in volume,
boiling point,
viscosity, or other physical characteristic or property of the substance,
as water molecules can become suspended between the substance's molecules
in the process.
Desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that
induces or sustains a
state of dryness (desiccation) in its
vicinity; it is the opposite of a humectant. Commonly encountered
pre-packaged desiccants are solids that
absorb water. Desiccants for
specialized purposes may be in forms other than solid, and may work
through other principles, such as chemical bonding of water molecules.
They are commonly encountered in foods to retain crispness. Industrially,
desiccants are widely used to control the level of water in gas streams.
Porous -
Refrigeration.
Humectant is a hygroscopic substance used to
keep things moist; it is the opposite of a desiccant because it is
wet. It is often a molecule with several hydrophilic groups, most often
hydroxyl groups; however, amines and carboxyl groups, sometimes
esterified, can be encountered as well (its affinity to form hydrogen
bonds with molecules of water is the crucial trait). They are used in many
products, including food, cosmetics, medicines and pesticides. A humectant
attracts and retains the moisture in the air nearby via absorption,
drawing the water vapor into or beneath the organism's or object's
surface. When used as a food additive, a humectant has the effect of
keeping the foodstuff moist. Humectants are sometimes used as a component
of antistatic coatings for plastics. In pharmaceuticals and cosmetics,
humectants can be used in topical dosage forms to increase the solubility
of a chemical compound's active ingredients, increasing the active
ingredients' ability to penetrate skin, or its activity time. This
hydrating property can also be needed to counteract a dehydrating active
ingredient (e.g., soaps, corticoids, and some alcohols), which is why
humectants are common ingredients in a wide range of cosmetic and personal
care products that make moisturization claims (e.g., hair conditioners,
body lotions, face or body cleansers, lip balms, and eye creams).
Schlieren Photography is a visual process that is used to photograph
the flow of fluids of varying density.
Light Bending.
Magnetic Ionic Liquid can be obtained from 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium
chloride and ferric chloride. It has quite low water solubility an thus
can be considered as hydrophobic ionic liquid.
Ionic
Liquid is a salt in the liquid state. In some contexts, the term has
been restricted to salts whose melting point is below some arbitrary
temperature, such as 100 °C (212 °F). While ordinary liquids such as water
and gasoline are predominantly made of electrically neutral molecules,
ionic liquids are largely made of ions and short-lived ion pairs. These
substances are variously called liquid electrolytes, ionic melts, ionic
fluids, fused salts, liquid salts, or ionic glasses. They are known as
"solvents of the future" as well as "designer solvents".
Siphon -
Membranes.
Internal
Wave are gravity waves that oscillate within a fluid medium, rather
than on its surface. To exist, the fluid must be stratified: the density
must change (continuously or discontinuously) with depth/height due to
changes, for example, in temperature and/or salinity. If the density
changes over a small vertical distance (as in the case of the thermocline
in lakes and oceans or an atmospheric inversion), the waves propagate
horizontally like
surface
waves, but do so at slower speeds as determined by the density
difference of the fluid below and above the interface. If the density
changes continuously, the waves can propagate vertically as well as
horizontally through the fluid. Where low density water overlies high
density water in the
ocean, internal waves propagate along the boundary.
Internal waves typically have much lower frequencies and higher amplitudes
than surface gravity waves because the density differences (and therefore
the restoring forces) within a fluid are usually much smaller. Wavelengths
vary from centimetres to kilometres with periods of seconds to hours
respectively. An internal wave can readily be observed in the kitchen by
slowly tilting back and forth a bottle of salad dressing - the waves exist
at the interface between oil and vinegar.
How Does Kodak
Apply Light Sensitive Coating to Film? Kodak Tour Part 2 of 3 -
Smarter Every Day 275 (youtube) -
How Does Kodak Make
Film? (Kodak Factory Tour Part 1 of 3) - Smarter Every Day 271. (youtube)
-
The Chemistry of
Kodak Film - Smarter Every Day 275-C. (youtube).
Surface Tension
Surface
Tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it
acquire the least surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects
(e.g. water striders), usually
denser than water, to
float and stride on a
water surface. At liquid–air interfaces, surface tension results from the
greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to
cohesion)
than to the molecules in the air (due to
adhesion). The net effect is an
inward
force at its
surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered
with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension
from the imbalanced forces, which is probably where the term "
surface
tension" came from. Because of the relatively high attraction of water
molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a
higher surface tension (72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 °C) compared to
that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the
phenomenon of
capillarity. Surface tension has the dimension of force per
unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent, but when
referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the term surface
energy, which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to
solids. In materials science, surface tension is used for either
surface stress or surface free energy.
Surface Tension tighter molecule bonds at the surface (Khana) -
Viscosity.
Surface Energy quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that
occurs when a surface is created. In the physics of solids, surfaces must
be intrinsically less energetically favorable than the bulk of a material
(the molecules on the surface have more energy compared with the molecules
in the bulk of the material), otherwise there would be a driving force for
surfaces to be created, removing the bulk of the material (see
sublimation). The surface energy may therefore be defined as the excess
energy at the surface of a material compared to the bulk, or it is the
work required to build an area of a particular surface. Another way to
view the surface energy is to relate it to the work required to cut a bulk
sample, creating two surfaces. Cutting a solid body into pieces disrupts
its bonds, and therefore increases free energy. If the cutting is done
reversibly, then conservation of energy means that the energy consumed by
the cutting process will be equal to the energy inherent in the two new
surfaces created. The unit surface energy of a material would therefore be
half of its energy of cohesion, all other things being equal; in practice,
this is true only for a surface freshly prepared in
vacuum. Surfaces often
change their form away from the simple "cleaved bond" model just implied
above. They are found to be highly dynamic regions, which readily
rearrange or react, so that energy is often reduced by such processes as
passivation or adsorption.
Buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that
opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure
increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid.
Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at
the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object
submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. The
pressure difference results in a net upward force on the object. The
magnitude of the force is proportional to the pressure difference, and (as
explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the
fluid that would otherwise occupy the volume of the object, i.e. the
displaced fluid. For this reason, an object whose average density is
greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If
the object is less dense than the liquid, the force can keep the object
afloat. This can occur only in a non-inertial reference frame, which
either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other
than gravity defining a "downward" direction. The center of buoyancy of an
object is the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid.
Water Droplets Bounce on Water Surface. At the water's surface,
because the molecules are restricted from moving upward anymore, hydrogen
bonds are slightly more prevalent. This is what causes water to bead up,
and is also resulting in the bouncing effect here. The drops have enough
of their own surface tension to bounce off of the water below. Each time a
drop does merge, about half the water gets tossed back up in a smaller
droplet. This phenomenon is called the coalescence cascade.
Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or
particles merge during contact to form a single daughter droplet, bubble
or particle. It can take place in many processes, ranging from meteorology
to astrophysics. For example, it is seen in the formation of raindrops as
well as planetary and star formation. In meteorology, its role is crucial
in the formation of
Rain. As droplets are
carried by the updrafts and downdrafts in a
cloud, they collide and coalesce to form larger droplets. When the
droplets become too large to be sustained on the air currents, they begin
to fall as rain. Adding to this process, the
cloud may be seeded with
ice from higher altitudes,
either via the cloud tops reaching −40 °C (−40 °F), or via the cloud being
seeded by ice from cirrus clouds. In cloud physics the main mechanism of
collision is the different terminal velocity between the droplets. The
terminal velocity is a function of the droplet size. The other factors
that determine the collision rate are the droplet concentration and
turbulence.
Rain.
Elastic Collision is an encounter between two bodies in which the
total
kinetic energy of the two bodies
remains the same. In an ideal, perfectly elastic collision, there is no
net conversion of kinetic energy into other forms such as heat, noise, or
potential energy. During the collision of small objects, kinetic energy is
first converted to potential energy associated with a repulsive force
between the particles (when the particles move against this force, i.e.
the angle between the force and the relative velocity is obtuse), then
this potential energy is converted back to kinetic energy (when the
particles move with this force, i.e. the angle between the force and the
relative velocity is acute).
Marangoni Effect is the mass transfer along an interface between two
fluids due to a gradient of the surface tension. In the case of
temperature dependence, this phenomenon may be called thermo-capillary
convection (or Bénard–Marangoni convection).
Tears of Wine is manifested as a ring of clear liquid, near the top of
a glass of wine, from which droplets continuously form and drop back into
the wine. It is most readily observed in a wine which has a high alcohol
content. It is also referred to as wine legs, "fingers", curtains, or
church windows.
Archimedes' Principle states that the upward buoyant force that is
exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially
submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and
acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid.
Archimedes' principle is a law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics.
It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse.
Water
Thread Experiment is a phenomenon that occurs when two containers of
deionized water, placed on an insulator, are connected by a thread, then a
high-voltage positive electric charge is applied to one container, and a
negative charge to the other. At a critical voltage, an unsupported water
liquid bridge is formed between the containers, which will remain even
when they are separated. The phenomenon was first reported in 1893 in a
public lecture by the British engineer William Armstrong.
Sand Castles stay together because the water forms
capillary bridges between the sand grains that
hold them together. These capillary bridges can be quite strong, allowing
construction of complex castles.
Friction (drag)
Capillary Bridges are created between two rigid bodies with an
arbitrary shape with a minimized surface of liquid or membrane. Capillary
bridges also may form between two liquids. Plateau defined a sequence of
capillary shapes known as (1) nodoid with 'neck',
(2) catenoid, (3) unduloid with 'neck', (4) cylinder, (5) unduloid with
'haunch' (6) sphere and (7) nodoid with 'haunch'. The presence of
capillary bridge, depending on their shapes, can lead to attraction or
repulsion between the solid bodies. The simplest cases of them are the
axisymmetric ones. We distinguished three important classes of bridging,
depending on connected bodies surface shapes: Capillary bridges and their
properties may also be influenced by Earth gravity and by properties of
the bridged surfaces. The bridging substance may be a liquid or a gas. The
enclosing boundary is called the interface (capillary surface). The
interface is characterized by a particular
surface
tension.
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics
is the branch of physics that studies the
mechanics of fluids (liquids,
gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics has a wide
range of applications, including for mechanical engineering, chemical
engineering, geophysics, astrophysics, and biology. Fluid mechanics can be
divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid
dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion.
Fluid Dynamics
is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids -
liquids and gases.
Hydraulics (engineering).
Chocolate Lullaby -
Music Video (youtube).
Fluid Dynamics
is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that deals with
fluid flow.
Volumetric image of a helical vortex leapfrogging through a vortex ring in
water, with dye-blob tracks overlaid in warm colors.
Eddy is a
circular movement of water,
counter to a main
current, causing a small whirlpool.
Eddy in fluid dynamics is the swirling of a fluid and the reverse
current created when the fluid is in a turbulent flow regime. The moving
fluid creates a space devoid of downstream-flowing fluid on the downstream
side of the object. Fluid behind the obstacle flows into the void creating
a
swirl of fluid on each edge of the
obstacle, followed by a short reverse flow of fluid behind the obstacle
flowing upstream, toward the back of the obstacle. This phenomenon is
naturally observed behind large emergent rocks in swift-flowing rivers.
Whirlpool is a body of rotating water produced by opposing currents or
a current running into an obstacle. Small whirlpools form when a bath or a
sink is draining. More powerful ones in seas or oceans may be termed
maelstroms. Vortex is the proper term for a whirlpool that has a
downdraft.
Vortex.
Hydraulic Jump is a phenomenon in the science of
hydraulics which is frequently
observed in open channel flow such as rivers and spillways. When liquid at
high
velocity
discharges into a zone of lower velocity, a rather abrupt rise occurs in
the liquid surface. The rapidly flowing liquid is abruptly slowed and
increases in height, converting some of the flow's initial
kinetic energy into an increase in
potential energy,
with some energy irreversibly lost through turbulence to heat. In an open
channel flow, this manifests as the fast flow rapidly slowing and piling
up on top of itself similar to how a shockwave forms.
What is a Hydraulic
Jump? (youtube) -
Hydraulic Jumps in Rectangular Channels is a natural phenomenon that
occurs whenever flow changes from supercritical to subcritical flow. In
this transition, the water surface rises abruptly, surface rollers are
formed, intense mixing occurs, air is entrained, and often a large amount
of energy is dissipated.
Dams (hydro
energy).
Hydraulic Ram is a
cyclic water pump powered by
hydropower. It takes
in water at one "
hydraulic
head" (pressure) and flow rate, and outputs water at a higher
hydraulic head and lower flow rate. The device uses the water hammer
effect to develop pressure that allows a portion of the input water that
powers the pump to be lifted to a point higher than where the water
originally started. The hydraulic ram is sometimes used in remote areas,
where there is both a source of low-head hydropower and a need for pumping
water to a destination higher in elevation than the source. In this
situation, the ram is often useful, since it requires no outside source of
power other than the kinetic energy of flowing water. Head Pressure -
Elevation Pressure - Velocity Head.
Siphoning.
Check Valve is a valve that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to
flow through it in only one direction.
Water Hammer is a
pressure surge or
wave caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in
motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly (
momentum
change). A water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly
at an end of a
pipeline system, and a pressure
wave propagates in the pipe. It is also called hydraulic shock. This
pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe
collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses
with accumulators, expansion tanks, surge tanks, blowoff valves, and other
features. Rough calculations can be made either using the
Zhukovsky (Joukowsky) equation, or more accurate ones using the method
of characteristics.
What is Water Hammer? (youtube).
Cavitation is a
phenomenon in which the static
pressure of the
liquid reduces to below the liquid's vapour pressure, leading to the
formation of small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid. When subjected to
higher pressure, these cavities, called "bubbles" or "voids", collapse and
can generate shock waves that may damage machinery. These shock waves are
strong when they are very close to the imploded bubble, but rapidly weaken
as they propagate away from the implosion. When subjected to higher pressure, the voids
implode and can generate an intense
shock wave. Cavitation is a
significant cause of wear in some engineering contexts. Collapsing voids
that implode near to a metal surface cause cyclic stress through repeated
implosion. This results in surface fatigue of the metal causing a type of
wear also called "cavitation". The most common examples of this kind of
wear are to pump impellers, and bends where a sudden change in the
direction of liquid occurs. Cavitation is usually divided into two classes
of behavior: inertial (or transient) cavitation and non-inertial
cavitation. Inertial cavitation is the process where a void or bubble in a
liquid rapidly collapses, producing a shock wave. Inertial cavitation
occurs in nature in the strikes of mantis shrimps and pistol shrimps, as
well as in the vascular tissues of plants. In man-made objects, it can
occur in control valves, pumps, propellers and impellers. Non-inertial
cavitation is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is forced to
oscillate in size or shape due to some form of energy input, such as an
acoustic field. Such cavitation is often employed in ultrasonic cleaning
baths and can also be observed in pumps, propellers, etc. Since the shock
waves formed by collapse of the voids are strong enough to cause
significant damage to moving parts, cavitation is usually an
undesirable phenomenon. It is very often specifically avoided in the
design of machines such as turbines or
propellers, and eliminating
cavitation is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics. However, it is
sometimes useful and does not cause damage when the bubbles collapse away
from machinery, such as in
supercavitation, which is the use of
cavitation effects to create a
bubble of
steam inside a
liquid
large enough to encompass an object travelling through the liquid, greatly
reducing the skin friction
drag on the object and enabling achievement of very high speeds.
Cavitation produces a bubble that rapidly collapses and becomes hotter
than the sun's surface. Cavitation is when low pressure in a liquid
produces a bubble that rapidly collapses, and heats up to 20,000 Kelvin —
hotter than the sun's surface. This usually releases a flash of light
called
sonoluminescence, which physicists still don't understand. Some
physicists even theorize that cavitation bubbles could get hot enough to
power
nuclear fusion. Cavitation is the
formation of an empty space within a solid object or body. The formation
of bubbles in a liquid, typically by the movement of a propeller through
it. Hydrodynamic cavitation describes the process of vaporisation, bubble
generation and bubble implosion which occurs in a flowing liquid as a
result of a decrease and subsequent increase in local pressure. ultrasound
cavitation, a method of generating cavitation with
soundwaves most well
known for its use in breaking up kidney stones.
Contraction -
Impeller -
The Fluid Effects
That Kill Pumps (youtube) -
Hydro Power
-
Pumps
Air Lock
is a restriction of, or complete stoppage of liquid flow caused by vapour
trapped in a high point of a
liquid-filled pipe system. The gas, being
less dense than the liquid, rises to any high points. This phenomenon is
known as vapor lock, or air lock. Flushing the system with high flow or
pressures can help move the gas away from the highest point, or a tap (or
automatic vent valve) can be installed to let the gas out.
Air Gap in plumbing is the unobstructed vertical space between the
water outlet and the flood level of a fixture. Air gaps of appropriate
design are required for water safety by legislation in many countries. A
simple example is the space between a wall mounted faucet and the sink rim
(this space is the air gap). Water can easily flow from the faucet into
the sink, but there is no way that water can flow from the sink into the
faucet without modifying the system. This arrangement will prevent any
contaminants in the sink from flowing into the potable water system by
siphonage and is the least expensive form of backflow prevention.
Volumetric
Flow Rate is the volume of
fluid which
passes per unit time.
Air Flow.
Discharge in hydrology is the volumetric flow rate of water that is
transported through a given cross-sectional area.
Flow Measurement
is the quantification of bulk fluid movement.
Drip.
Laminar Flow
Plateau–Rayleigh Instability explains why and how a falling stream of
fluid breaks up into smaller packets with the same volume but less surface
area. It is related to the
Rayleigh–Taylor instability and is part of a greater branch of fluid
dynamics concerned with
fluid thread breakup. This fluid instability is exploited in the
design of a particular type of ink jet technology whereby a jet of liquid
is perturbed into a steady stream of droplets. The driving force of the
Plateau–Rayleigh instability is that liquids, by virtue of their surface
tensions, tend to minimize their surface area. A considerable amount of
work has been done recently on the final pinching profile by attacking it
with self-similar solutions.
Saddle Point is a point on the surface of the graph of a function
where the slopes (derivatives) in orthogonal directions are all zero (a
critical point), but which is not a local extremum of the function.
Hydrostatics is
the branch of
fluid mechanics that studies incompressible fluids at rest.
The branch of science concerned with forces acting on or exerted by fluids
or liquids. It encompasses the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest
in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in
motion. Hydrostatics are categorized as a part of the fluid statics, which
is the study of all fluids, incompressible or not, at rest. Hydrostatics
is fundamental to
hydraulics,
the engineering of equipment for storing, transporting and using fluids.
It is also relevant to geophysics and astrophysics (for example, in
understanding plate tectonics and the anomalies of the Earth's
gravitational field), to meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood
pressure), and many other fields. Hydrostatics offers physical
explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as why atmospheric
pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why
the surface of still water is always level.
Hydrodynamics is a branch of physics that
deals with the motion of fluids and the forces acting on solid bodies
immersed in fluids and in motion relative to them.
Entrainment in hydrodynamics is the transport of fluid across an
interface between two bodies of fluid by a shear induced turbulent flux.
Compressible Flow is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with
flows having significant changes in fluid density. While all flows are
compressible, flows are usually treated as being incompressible when the
Mach number (the ratio of the speed of the flow to the speed of sound) is
less than 0.3 (since the density change due to velocity is about 5% in
that case). The study of compressible flow is relevant to high-speed
aircraft, jet engines, rocket motors, high-speed entry into a planetary
atmosphere, gas pipelines, commercial applications such as abrasive
blasting, and many other fields.
Capillary Action
Capillary Action
sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, or
wicking, is the
ability of a
liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in
opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the
drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube,
in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous
materials such as sand and liquefied carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs
because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid
surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the
combination of
surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the
liquid) and
adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to
lift the liquid.
Ceramic Water
Spikes.
Capillary
Condensation is the process by which multilayer adsorption from the
vapor [phase] into a porous medium proceeds to the point at which pore
spaces become filled with condensed liquid from the vapor [phase]. The
unique aspect of capillary condensation is that vapor condensation occurs
below the saturation vapor pressure, Psat, of the pure liquid. This result
is due to an increased number of
van der Waals interactions between vapor phase molecules inside the
confined space of a capillary. Once condensation has occurred, a meniscus
immediately forms at the liquid-vapor interface which allows for
equilibrium below the saturation vapor pressure. Meniscus formation is
dependent on the surface tension of the liquid and the shape of the
capillary, as shown by the Young-Laplace equation. As with any
liquid-vapor interface involving a meniscus, the Kelvin equation provides
a relation for the difference between the equilibrium vapor pressure and
the saturation vapor pressure. A capillary does not necessarily have to be
a tubular, closed shape, but can be any confined space with respect to its
surroundings. Capillary condensation is an important factor in both
naturally occurring and synthetic porous structures. In these structures,
scientists use the concept of capillary condensation to determine pore
size distribution and surface area through adsorption isotherms. Synthetic
applications such as sintering of materials are also highly dependent on
bridging effects resulting from capillary condensation. In contrast to the
advantages of capillary condensation, it can also cause many problems in
materials science applications such as atomic-force microscopy and
microelectromechanical systems.
Porous is something that
is full of
pores or vessels
or holes that is able to
absorb fluids and allow passage in and out.
Porous Medium is a material containing pores (voids). The skeletal
portion of the material is often called the "matrix" or "frame".
Insulation -
Bones -
Filtering
-
Membranes -
Metal Ions -
Metal-Organic Framework -
MOF
Porosity is a measure
of the void (i.e. "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the
volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage
between 0% and 100%.
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous material (often,
a rock or an unconsolidated material) to allow fluids to pass through it.
The permeability of a medium is related to the porosity, but also to the
shapes of the pores in the medium and their level of connectedness.
Semipermeable Membrane is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric
membrane that will allow certain molecules or
ions to pass through it by
diffusion—or occasionally by more specialized processes of facilitated
diffusion, passive transport or active transport. The rate of passage
depends on the pressure, concentration, and temperature of the molecules
or solutes on either side, as well as the permeability of the membrane to
each solute. Depending on the membrane and the solute, permeability may
depend on solute size, solubility, properties, or chemistry. How the
membrane is constructed to be selective in its permeability will determine
the rate and the permeability. Many natural and synthetic materials
thicker than a membrane are also semipermeable. One example of this is the
thin film on the inside of the
egg.
Note that a semipermeable membrane is not the same as a selectively
permeable membrane. Semipermeable membrane describes a membrane that
allows some particles to pass through (by size), whereas the selectively
permeable membrane "chooses" what passes through (size is not a factor).
Pneumomediastinum
- Carbonation -
Bear Head -
Bubbles -
The Bends
Molecular Sieve is a material with pores (very small holes) of uniform
size. These pore diameters are similar in size to small molecules, and
thus large molecules cannot enter or be adsorbed, while smaller molecules
can. As a mixture of molecules migrate through the stationary bed of
porous, semi-solid substance referred to as a sieve (or matrix), the
components of highest molecular weight (which are unable to pass into the
molecular pores) leave the bed first, followed by successively smaller
molecules. Some molecular sieves are used in chromatography, a separation
technique that sorts molecules based on their size. Other molecular sieves
are used as desiccants (some examples include activated charcoal and
silica gel). The diameter of a molecular sieve is measured in ångströms
(Å) or nanometres (nm). According to IUPAC notation, microporous materials
have pore diameters of less than 2 nm (20 Å) and macroporous materials
have pore diameters of greater than 50 nm (500 Å); the mesoporous category
thus lies in the middle with pore diameters between 2 and 50 nm (20–500
Å).
Liquid Fluid.
Flux
describes the quantity which passes through a surface or substance.
Osmosis is the
spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a
semi-permeable
membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction
that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. It may
also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves
across a semipermeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the
solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis can
be made to do work.
Diffusion is the net movement of
molecules or
atoms from a region of
high concentration with high chemical potential to a region of low
concentration with low chemical potential. This is also referred to as the
movement of a substance down a concentration gradient. A gradient is the
change in the value of a quantity e.g. concentration, pressure, or
temperature with the change in another variable, usually
distance. A
change in concentration over a distance is called a concentration
gradient, a change in
pressure over a distance is called a pressure
gradient, and a change in temperature over a distance is a called a
temperature gradient.
Transpiration
is the process of
water movement through a plant and its
evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves,
stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount
of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The
remaining 97–99.5% is lost by transpiration and guttation. Leaf surfaces
are dotted with pores called stomata, and in most
plants they are more
numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The stomata are bordered by
guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells (together known as
stomatal complex) that open and close the pore. Transpiration occurs
through the stomatal apertures, and can be thought of as a necessary
"cost" associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion
of carbon dioxide gas from the air for
photosynthesis.
Transpiration also cools plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and
enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots. Two
major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots:
the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure
gradient through the soil. Both of these factors influence the rate of
bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the
leaves via the xylem. Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the
leaves is driven in part by
capillary action, but primarily driven by
water potential differences. If the water potential in the ambient air is
lower than the water potential in the leaf airspace of the stomatal pore,
water vapor will travel down the gradient and move from the leaf airspace
to the atmosphere. This movement lowers the
water potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of liquid
water from the mesophyll cell walls. This
evaporation increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell
walls and decrease their radius and thus the tension that is exerted on
the water in the cells. Because of the cohesive properties of water, the
tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem where a
momentary negative
pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem
from the roots. In taller plants and trees, the force of gravity can only
be overcome by the decrease in
hydrostatic (water) pressure in the upper
parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of stomata into the
atmosphere. Water is absorbed at the roots by
osmosis, and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through
the xylem. The
cohesion-tension theory explains how leaves pull water through the
xylem. Water molecules stick together, or exhibit cohesion. As a water
molecule evaporates from the surface of the leaf, it pulls on the adjacent
water molecule, creating a continuous flow of water through the plant.
Hydraulic Conductivity is a property of vascular plants, soils and
rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move
through pore spaces or fractures. It depends on the intrinsic permeability
of the material, the degree of saturation, and on the density and
viscosity of the fluid. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ksat, describes
water movement through saturated media. By definition, hydraulic
conductivity is the ratio of velocity to hydraulic gradient indicating
permeability of porous media.
Vascular Plants
are defined as those land plants that have lignified tissues (the
xylem)
for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant.
Phloem is the living
tissue that transports the soluble organic compounds made during
photosynthesis
and known as photosynthates, in particular the sugar sucrose, to parts of
the plant where needed. This transport process is called translocation.
Deuterium-Depleted Water is water which has a lower concentration of
deuterium than occurs naturally. Deuterium is a heavier isotope of
hydrogen which has, in addition to its one proton, a neutron that roughly
doubles the mass of the hydrogen atom. In Vienna Standard Mean Ocean
Water, deuterium occurs at a rate of 155.76 ppm. The production of heavy
water involves isolating and removing deuterium within water. The
by-product of this process is deuterium-depleted water.
Relative Permittivity of a material is its (absolute) permittivity
expressed as a ratio relative to the
permittivity of vacuum. Permittivity is a material property that
affects the Coulomb force between two point charges in the material.
Relative permittivity is the factor by which the electric field between
the charges is decreased relative to vacuum. Likewise, relative
permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that
material as a dielectric, compared with a similar capacitor that has
vacuum as its dielectric. Relative permittivity is also commonly known as
dielectric constant, a term deprecated in
physics and engineering as well as in chemistry.
Siphoning
Siphon
is used to refer to a wide variety of devices that involve the
flow of
liquids through tubes. In a narrower sense, the word refers particularly
to a tube in an inverted 'U' shape, which causes a liquid to flow upward,
above the surface of a reservoir, with no pump, but powered by the fall of
the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of
gravity, then discharging at a level
lower than the surface of the reservoir from which it came.
At sea level, water can be lifted a little more than 10 metres or 33 feet.
Pythagorean Cup is when a specially designed cup is filled beyond a
certain point, a siphoning effect causes the cup to drain its entire
contents through the base.
Air Lock -
Hydraulic Pump
-
How To Make a
Self-Starting Siphon (youtube) -
Chain Fountain
Superfluidity
is a state of matter in which the matter behaves like a fluid with zero
viscosity; where it appears to exhibit the ability to self-propel and
travel in a way that defies the forces of gravity and surface tension. Superfluidity is found in astrophysics,
high-energy physics, and
theories of quantum gravity. The phenomenon is related to
Bose–Einstein condensation, but neither is a specific type of the other:
not all Bose-Einstein condensates can be regarded as superfluids, and
not all superfluids are Bose–Einstein condensates.
Atomization is the making of an aerosol, which is a colloid suspension
of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas.
Sprays,
mists, fogs,
clouds, dust clouds, and
smoke, which appear to be atomized.
Atomizer Nozzle (wiki)
Aerosol
is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets, in air or
another gas. Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic. Examples of natural
aerosols are fog, dust, forest exudates and geyser steam. Examples of
anthropogenic aerosols are haze,
particulate air
pollutants and
smoke.
Aspirator pump is a type of ejector-jet pump, which produces vacuum by
means of the
Venturi effect, which is the reduction in fluid pressure that results
when a fluid flows through a constricted section (or choke) of a pipe.
Nebulizer is a drug delivery device used to administer medication in
the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs. Nebulizers are commonly used
for the treatment of asthma, cystic fibrosis, COPD and other respiratory
diseases or disorders.
Injector
is typically used to deliver cold water to a boiler against its own
pressure using its own live or exhaust steam, replacing any mechanical pump.
Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants,
phloem being the other. The basic function of xylem is to transport water
from roots to stems and leaves, but it also transports nutrients. The word
"xylem" is derived from the Greek word (xylon), meaning "wood"; the
best-known xylem tissue is wood, though it is found throughout a plant.
Water is a polar molecule. When two water molecules approach one another,
the slightly negatively charged oxygen atom of one forms a hydrogen bond
with a slightly positively charged hydrogen atom in the other. This
attractive force, along with other intermolecular forces, is one of the
principal factors responsible for the occurrence of surface tension in
liquid water. It also allows plants to draw water from the root through
the xylem to the leaf. Water is constantly lost through transpiration from
the leaf. When one water molecule is lost another is pulled along by the
processes of cohesion and tension. Transpiration pull, utilizing capillary
action and the inherent surface tension of water, is the primary mechanism
of water movement in plants. However, it is not the only mechanism
involved. Any use of water in leaves forces water to move into them.
Transpiration in leaves creates tension (differential pressure) in the
cell walls of mesophyll cells. Because of this tension, water is being
pulled up from the roots into the leaves, helped by cohesion (the pull
between individual water molecules, due to hydrogen bonds) and adhesion
(the stickiness between water molecules and the hydrophilic cell walls of
plants). This mechanism of water flow works because of water potential
(water flows from high to low potential), and the rules of simple
diffusion.
Pump is a
device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by
mechanical action, typically converted from electrical energy into
hydraulic energy. Pumps can be classified into three major groups
according to the method they use to move the fluid: direct lift,
displacement, and gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism
(typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform
mechanical work moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources,
including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, and come
in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications, to large
industrial pumps. Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications
such as pumping water from
wells, aquarium filtering,
pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and
fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or
for operating cooling towers and other components of heating, ventilation
and air conditioning systems. In the medical industry, pumps are used for
biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and as
artificial replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart
and penile prosthesis. When a casing contains only one revolving impeller,
it is called a single-stage pump. When a casing contains two or more
revolving impellers, it is called a double- or multi-stage pump. In
biology, many different types of chemical and biomechanical pumps have
evolved; biomimicry is sometimes used in developing new types of
mechanical pumps.
Water Pressure Regulator
or pressure-reducing valve or
PRV, is a
specialized plumbing valve that reduces the water pressure coming into the
home through the main water line. This valve brings down the pressure to a
safe level before the water reaches any plumbing fixtures inside the home.
Viscosity
Viscosity
in
fluid is a measure of its
resistance to
gradual deformation by shear
stress or
tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal
concept of "
thickness"; for example, honey has a much higher viscosity
than water.
Viscous Liquid (wiki) -
States of Matter
-
Heat.
Non-Newtonian Fluid is a
fluid that does
not follow Newton's law of viscosity, or constant viscosity independent of
stress. In non-Newtonian fluids,
viscosity can
change when under force to either more liquid or more solid, or
turns into solids when pressure is applied. In non-Newtonian fluids,
viscosity can change when under force to either more liquid or more solid.
Ketchup, for example, becomes runnier when shaken and is thus a
non-Newtonian fluid. Many salt solutions and molten polymers are
non-Newtonian fluids, as are many commonly found substances such as
custard, toothpaste, honey, starch suspensions, corn starch, paint, blood,
melted butter, and shampoo.
Surface Tension.
New evidence that water separates into two different liquids at low
temperatures. A new kind of "phase transition" in water. Researchers
found that the water molecules in the high-density liquid form
arrangements that are considered to be "topologically complex," such as a
trefoil knot that resemble a pretzel, or a Hopf link like two links in a
steel chain. The molecules in the high-density liquid are thus said to be
entangled. The molecules in the low-density
liquid mostly form simple rings, and hence the molecules in the
low-density liquid are
unentangled.
New study visualizes motion of water molecules, promises new wave of
electronic devices. Studying the viscosity of water has revealed new
insights about the behavior of water molecules and may open pathways for
liquid-based electronics.
Cavitation -
Contraction -
Impeller -
Mucus
Dispersion in water waves generally refers to frequency dispersion,
which means that waves of different wavelengths travel at different phase
speeds. Water waves, in this context, are waves propagating on the water
surface, with gravity and surface tension as the restoring forces. As a
result, water with a free surface is generally considered to be a
dispersive medium.
Acoustic Dispersion is the phenomenon of a sound wave separating into
its component frequencies as it passes through a material. The phase
velocity of the sound wave is viewed as a function of frequency. Hence,
separation of component frequencies is measured by the rate of change in
phase velocities as the radiated waves pass through a given medium.
Thickened Fluids have several levels of consistency/viscosity. 0 –
Thin liquids: Unthickened, such as water or juice. Common thin liquids
include coffee, tea, clear broth, clear juice, skim milk, 2% milk, and
whole milk. 1 – Slightly thick (between 9 and 6 ml pour out of a 10ml
syringe in 10 seconds). 2 – Mildly thick (between 6 and 2 ml pour out). 3
– Moderately thick (2 or less ml pour out). 4 – Extremely thick – drinks
of this stage should require a spoon to drink and are comparable to pureed
foods. People with
dysphagia have
difficulty in swallowing. Thicker consistency makes it less likely that
individuals will aspirate while they are drinking.
Pulmonary Aspiration is the entry of material such as pharyngeal
secretions, food or drink, or stomach contents from the oropharynx or
gastrointestinal tract, into the larynx (voice box) and lower respiratory
tract, the portions of the respiratory system from the trachea (windpipe)
to the lungs. A person may inhale the material, or it may be delivered
into the tracheobronchial tree during positive pressure ventilation. When
pulmonary aspiration occurs during eating and drinking, the aspirated
material is often colloquially referred to as "going down the wrong pipe."
Superfluidity is the characteristic property of a fluid with
zero
viscosity which therefore
flows without any loss of kinetic energy. When
stirred, a superfluid forms vortices that continue to rotate indefinitely. Superfluidity occurs in two isotopes of helium (helium-3 and helium-4)
when they are liquefied by cooling to cryogenic temperatures. It is also a
property of various other exotic states of matter theorized to exist in
astrophysics, high-energy physics, and theories of quantum gravity.
Laminar Flow.
Switching on a Superfluid. Exotic phase transitions unlock pathways to
future, superfluid-based technologies. We can learn a lot by studying
microscopic and macroscopic changes in a material as it crosses from one
phase to another, for example from ice to water to steam. A new study
examines systems transitioning from 'normal' fluid to a quantum state
known as a superfluid, which can flow with zero friction, with a view to
future, superfluid-based, quantum technologies, such as ultra-low energy
electronics.
Researchers develop new method for detecting superfluid motion.
Scientists hope the method leads to breakthroughs in sensing and
information processing. Researchers are part of a new study that could
help unlock the potential of superfluids -- essentially frictionless
special substances capable of unstopped motion once initiated.
Heat - High Temperature
When
heat is added to a substance, the
molecules and
atoms vibrate faster.
As atoms vibrate faster, the
space between atoms increases. An increase in
the speed of the molecules competes with the attraction between molecules
and causes molecules to move a little further apart. The volume of a
gas increases more than the volume of a
solid or liquid. The end result of increased molecular motion is that the
object expands
and
takes up more space.
Mass of the object remains the same,
however. Solids, liquids and gases all expand when heat is added. The
mass is not
changed.
Thermal Expansion is the tendency of
matter to change its shape, area, and volume in response to a change
in
temperature. Temperature is a
monotonic function of the average molecular
kinetic energy of a substance. When a
substance is
heated, the
kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules begin
vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation.
Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this
effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature
ranges. The
relative expansion (also called strain)
divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient
of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Pressure -
Air Pressure.
At
low temperature a gas molecule travels, on the average,
at a
slower speed than than it would at a high
temperature. When heat leaves all
substances, the molecules vibrate slower. The atoms can get closer which
results in the matter
contracting. So, at a low
temperature the molecules have, on the average, less
kinetic energy than
they do at a high temperature. Lower speeds, lower
kinetic Energies.
Cooling a liquid decreases the speed of the molecules. A decrease in the
speed of the molecules allows the attractions between molecules to bring
them a little closer together. The motion and
spacing of the particles determines the state of
matter of the substance.
Cooking Heat -
Boiling
Water -
Evaporation -
Potential Energy
-
Steam
Marangoni Effect is the mass transfer along an interface between two
fluids due to a gradient of the surface tension. In the case of
temperature dependence, this phenomenon may be called thermo-capillary
convection (or Bénard–Marangoni convection).
Convection is the transfer of heat due to the bulk movement of
molecules within fluids (gases and liquids), including molten rock (rheid).
Convection includes sub-mechanisms of advection (directional bulk-flow
transfer of heat), and diffusion (non-directional transfer of energy or
mass particles along a concentration gradient).
Advection is the transport of a substance or quantity by bulk motion.
The properties of that substance are carried with it. Generally the
majority of the advected substance is a fluid. The properties that are
carried with the advected substance are conserved properties such as
energy.
Thermal Conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic
collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The
colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons,
transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, jointly
known as internal energy. Conduction takes place in all phases: solid,
liquid, and gas.
Density
of a substance is its
mass per unit
volume.
Why does Hot Air Rise? When an object or substance heats
up, the atoms which compose it start to move and vibrate more quickly.
This vibration pushes them apart,
causing them to take up more space. That
means that a given volume of air (or water, or whatever) will have fewer
atoms in it, because some of them were pushed out as it expanded. Fewer
atoms means
less mass, means less weight per volume. Less weight per
volume means less density.
Thermals -
Hot Water.
Sky
Lantern is a small hot air balloon made of paper, with an opening at
the bottom where a small fire is suspended. They can be dangerous because
they could land and start a fire.
Hot Air Balloon is a lighter than air aircraft consisting of a bag,
called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a
gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons,
a capsule), which carries passengers and (usually) a source of heat, in
most cases an open flame. The heated air inside the envelope makes it
buoyant since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the
envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the
atmosphere. Unlike gas balloons, the envelope does not have to be sealed
at the bottom, since the air near the bottom of the envelope is at the
same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the
envelope is generally made from nylon fabric and the inlet of the balloon
(closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire resistant material such
as Nomex. Modern balloons have been made in all kinds of shapes, such as
rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the
traditional shape is used for most non-commercial, and many commercial,
applications.
Wind Chill.
Water Gas is produced from
synthesis gas, which is
composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Syngas is a useful product but
requires careful handling due to its flammability and the risk of carbon
monoxide poisoning. The Water gas shift reaction can be used to reduce the
carbon monoxide while producing additional hydrogen, resulting in Water Gas.
Thermodynamics.
Why does Heating Water make it a better Solvent
Adding energy or
heat increases
molecular motion. Increased
molecular motion competes with the attraction between
solute molecules and
tends to make them come apart more easily. Increased
molecular motion
causes more solvent molecules to contact solute molecules and pull on them
with more force, usually resulting in more dissolving. Since different
substances are made from different atoms, ions, or molecules, increased
temperature will affect their dissolving to different extents.
Hot Air.
Showers -
Cooking Food
-
Viscosity
-
Evaporation -
Boiling Water
Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or
gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid,
or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on
the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as
on
temperature,
pressure and the
pH of the solution. The extent of the
solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the
saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the
concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount
of solute. The solubility of a substance is an entirely different property
from the rate of solution, which is how fast it dissolves.
Solvents
composed of polar molecules, such as water, dissolve other polar
molecules, such as table salt, while nonpolar solvents, such as gasoline,
dissolve nonpolar substances such as wax. The degree that a solvent
dissolves a given solute is known as its solubility.
Solute molecule is a molecule that's
soluble.
"The probability of you drinking a glass of water that contains a
molecule of water that also passed through a dinosaur is almost 100%."
Boiling Water at High Altitudes
Boiling Point of a substance is the
temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the
pressure
surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling
point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental
pressure.
Boiling is the application
of heat to change something from a liquid to a gas. Cooking in a liquid
that has been brought to a boil. Come to the boiling point and change from
a liquid to vapor.
Boiler.
High Altitude Cooking:
A common misconception is that it takes longer to boil water at
high altitudes. As explained, it is the exact opposite.
Increased elevation = decreased
boiling point. Thus this lower boiling point actually takes
less time to reach, so water starts to boil at a lower
temperature. The confusion is created by the fact that because of this lower
boiling point, it actually takes longer to cook food in or over
water. Because less
Heat is being
transferred through
radiation,
conduction, and
convection, it will take longer to cook a pot of
Alpine Pasta at 10,000 feet than at 1,000 feet elevation.
Other factors not related to
elevation gain, such as colder
temperatures and
windy conditions, can also increase the
time
required to
cook
food over a stove. These factors can be combated using a
backpacking stove windscreen. Altitude affects cooking in
three different ways: As elevation increases, the boiling point
of water decreases – When water boils at lower
temperatures, it
takes longer for foods to cook in or over water because less
heat is being transferred. As water’s boiling point decreases
and cooking times increase, the quicker liquid will evaporate –
Because water is boiling at a lower
temperature, water will
begin to
evaporate sooner. As elevation increases,
air pressure decreases and the faster leavening gases (air,
carbon dioxide and
water vapor) expand – This mostly only
affects baking at high altitudes where the amount of
leavening agents should be reduced. For water to increase in
temperature, water molecules must be made to move faster within the water;
this requires breaking hydrogen bonds, and the breaking of hydrogen bonds
absorbs heat.
Heat Capacity
is the capability of water to absorb heat without undergoing an
increase
in temperature. Pressure does not directly alter water temperature.
Instead, it shifts the freezing, boiling and maximum density points. The
temperature at which boiling and freezing occur will only hold true at sea
level. Pressure can change the boiling point of water.
Water boils at 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level,
but at 93.4 °C (200.1 °F) at 1,905 metres (6,250 ft) altitude. For a given
pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures.
Hot Showers.
Cooking with Hot Water -
Stoves -
Temperatures -
Hot Air
Boil Water with No
Heat! - Hydrostatics (youtube)
Mpemba Effect is the observation that, in some circumstances, warmer
water can freeze faster than colder water. there is disagreement on
exactly what the effect is and under what circumstances it occurs.
Leavening Agent
(yeast fungi)
Fluid Mechanics is the branch of
physics
that studies the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the
forces on them.
Hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies
incompressible
fluids at rest.
Bernoulli's Principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the
fluid's
potential energy.
Boyle's Law.
Pressure
is the
Force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit
area over which that force is distributed force divided by area.
Rapid
decompression key to making low-density liquid water. There are at
least 17 forms of water
ice, and two proposed forms of
super-cooled liquid water. New work from high-pressure geophysicists finds
evidence of the long-theorized, difficult-to-see low-density liquid phase
of water.
Barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure
atmospheric pressure.
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the
atmosphere.
Atmospheric Pressure sometimes also called
barometric pressure, is the
pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth
atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the
hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement
point.
Vapor Pressure or
equilibrium
vapor pressure is defined as the
pressure exerted
by a vapor in
thermodynamic equilibrium
with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a
closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a
liquid's
evaporation rate. It relates to the
tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). A substance
with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as
volatile. The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface
is known as vapor pressure. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the
kinetic energy of its molecules also increases. As the
kinetic energy of the molecules
increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also
increases, thereby increasing the vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of
any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the
Clausius–Clapeyron relation. The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a
liquid (also known as the
normal boiling point)
is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient
atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature,
the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome
atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid
to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation
deeper in the liquid requires a higher temperature due to the higher fluid
pressure, because fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure
as the depth increases. More important at shallow depths is the higher
temperature required to start bubble formation. The
surface tension of the bubble wall leads to an overpressure in the
very small, initial bubbles. Thus, thermometer calibration should not rely
on the temperature in boiling water. The vapor pressure that a single
component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is
called partial pressure. For example, air at sea level, and saturated with
water vapor at 20 °C, has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water, 78
kPa of nitrogen, 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon, totaling 102.2 kPa,
making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure.
Water Vapor.
Vapor Pressure and
Boiling (youtube) - Changes in atmospheric pressure causes water to
boil in a long tube. The molecules leaving a liquid through evaporation
create an upward pressure as they collide with air molecules. This upward
push is called the vapor pressure. Different substances have different
vapor pressures and therefore different boiling points. This is due to
differing intermolecular forces between molecules. The vapor pressure of a
liquid lowers the amount of pressure exerted on the liquid by the
atmosphere. As a result, liquids with high vapor pressures have lower
boiling points. Vapor pressure can be increased by heating a liquid and
causing more molecules to enter the atmosphere. At the point where the
vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure boiling will begin. In
effect, without any external pressure the liquid molecules will be able to
spread out and change from a liquid to a gaseous phase. The gas, as
bubbles in the liquid, will rise to the surface and be released into the
atmosphere.
Microwave Ovens
essentially
heat up the water content of the food.
If the food has a skin or sealed layer, like potatoes, then
pressure builds up
on the inside as
trapped moisture turns into
steam. As the pressure exceeds the
strength of the skin the food “bursts” with an explosive release of
steam. In order to reduce the odds of food
exploding in your
microwave,
you want to give the
steam a place to
escape. Simply take a fork and pierce the food item several times, Snider
suggests. It's the same technique you've been using all along before
heating those frozen dinners. Properties such as such as shape and size,
are affected by oven power and food placement during
microwave
heating.
The origin of water’s unusual properties found. Using x-ray lasers,
researchers at Stockholm University have been able to map out how water
fluctuates between two different states when it is cooled. At -44°C these
fluctuations reach a maximum pointing to the fact that water can exist as
two different distinct liquids. How water’s density, specific heat,
viscosity and compressibility respond to changes in pressure and
temperature is completely opposite to other liquids that we know. We all
are aware that all matter shrinks when it is cooled resulting in an
increase in the density. We would therefore expect that water would have
high density at the freezing point. However, if we look at a glass of ice
water, everything is upside down, since we expect that water at 0°C being
surrounded by ice should be at the bottom of the glass, but of course as
we know ice cubes float. Strangely enough for the liquid state, water is
the densest at 4 degrees C, and therefore it stays on the bottom whether
it’s in a glass or in an ocean. If you chill water below 4 degrees, it
starts to expand again. If you continue to cool pure water (where the rate
of crystallization is low) to below 0, it continues to expand – the
expansion even speeds up when it gets colder. Many more properties such as
compressibility and heat capacity become increasingly strange as water is
cooled. Now researchers at Stockholm University, with the help of
ultra-short x-ray pulses at x-ray lasers in Japan and South Korea, have
succeeded in determining that water reaches the peak of its strange
behaviour at -44°C. Water is unique, as it can exist in two liquid states
that have different ways of bonding the water molecules together. The
water fluctuates between these states as if it can’t make up its mind and
these fluctuations reach a maximum at -44°C. It is this ability to shift
from one liquid state into another that gives water its unusual properties
and since the fluctuations increase upon cooling also the strangeness increases.
Leidenfrost Effect is a physical phenomenon in which a liquid, close
to a surface that is significantly hotter than the liquid's boiling point,
produces an insulating vapor layer that keeps the liquid from boiling
rapidly. Because of this 'repulsive force', a droplet hovers over the
surface rather than making physical contact with the hot surface. This is
most commonly seen when cooking, when a few drops of water are sprinkled
in a hot pan. If the pan's temperature is at or above the Leidenfrost
point, which is approximately 193 °C (379 °F) for water, the water
skitters across the pan and takes longer to evaporate than it would take
if the water droplets had been sprinkled into a cooler pan. The effect is
responsible for the ability of a person to quickly dip a wet finger in
molten lead or blow out a mouthful of liquid nitrogen without injury. The
latter is potentially lethal, particularly should one accidentally swallow
the liquid nitrogen.
Ice - Snow - Crystals
Ice
is water frozen into a solid state. Depending on the presence of
impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear
transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color.
Temperature.
Ice Crystals are solid ice exhibiting
atomic ordering on
various length scales and include
hexagonal columns, hexagonal plates,
dendritic crystals, and diamond dust. The highly symmetric shapes are due
to depositional growth, namely, direct deposition of water vapour onto the
ice crystal.
Crystallization.
Freezing Food
-
Freezing Humans -
Hibernation
Frost is a thin layer of
ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor in an above-freezing
atmosphere coming in contact with a solid surface whose temperature is
below freezing, and resulting in a phase change from water vapor (a gas)
to ice (a solid) as the water vapor reaches the freezing point. In
temperate climates, it most commonly appears on surfaces near the ground
as fragile white crystals; in cold climates, it occurs in a greater
variety of forms. The propagation of crystal formation occurs by the
process of nucleation. The ice crystals of frost form as the result of
fractal process development. The depth of frost crystals varies depending
on the amount of time they have been accumulating, and the concentration
of the water vapor (humidity). Frost crystals may be invisible (black),
clear (translucent), or white; if a mass of frost crystals scatters light
in all directions, the coating of frost appears white. Types of frost
include crystalline frost (hoar frost or radiation frost) from deposition
of water vapor from air of low humidity, white frost in humid conditions,
window frost on glass surfaces, advection frost from cold wind over cold
surfaces, black frost without visible ice at low temperatures and very low
humidity, and rime under supercooled wet conditions. Plants that have
evolved in warmer climates suffer damage when the temperature falls low
enough to freeze the water in the cells that make up the plant tissue. The
tissue damage resulting from this process is known as "frost damage".
Farmers in those regions where frost damage is known to affect their crops
often invest in substantial means to protect their crops from such damage.
Ice Ih ice-phase-one is the hexagonal crystal form of
ordinary ice, or frozen water. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice
Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic that is
occasionally present in the upper atmosphere. Ice Ih exhibits many
peculiar properties that are relevant to the existence of life and
regulation of global climate.
Ice Ic is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice.
Ice II is a rhombohedral crystalline form of ice with a
highly ordered structure. It is formed from ice Ih by compressing it at
temperature of 198 K at 300 MPa or by decompressing ice V. When heated it
undergoes transformation to ice III. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih.
Ice III is a form of solid matter which consists of
tetragonal crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300
MPa. It is the least dense of the high-pressure water phases, with a
density of 1160 kg/m3 (at 350 MPa). The proton-ordered form of ice III is
ice IX.
Water that Never Freezes can reach minus 263 degrees Celsius without
turning into ice.
Superionic Water
or
superionic ice or ice XVIII, is a phase
of water that exists at extremely high temperatures and pressures. In
superionic water, water molecules break apart and the oxygen ions
crystallize into an evenly spaced lattice while the hydrogen ions float
around freely within the oxygen lattice. The freely mobile hydrogen ions
make superionic water almost as conductive as typical metals, making it a
superionic conductor. It is one of the 19 known crystalline phases of ice.
Superionic water is distinct from ionic water, which is a hypothetical
liquid state characterized by a disordered soup of hydrogen and oxygen
ions. While theorized for decades, it was not until the 1990s that the
first experimental evidence emerged for superionic water. Initial evidence
came from optical measurements of laser-heated water in a diamond anvil
cell, and from optical measurements of water shocked by extremely powerful
lasers. The first definitive evidence for the crystal structure of the
oxygen lattice in superionic water came from x-ray measurements on
laser-shocked water which were reported in 2019. If it were present on the
surface of the Earth, superionic ice would rapidly decompress. In May
2019, scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) were
able to synthesize superionic ice, confirming it to be almost four times
as dense as normal ice. Superionic water is theorized to be present in the
mantles of giant planets such as Uranus and Neptune.
Time Crystal.
An exotic interplay of electrons. International research team
discovers novel quantum state.
Water that simply
will not freeze, no matter how cold it gets -- a research group has
discovered a quantum state that could be described in this way. Experts
have managed to cool a special material to near absolute zero temperature.
They found that a central property of atoms -- their alignment -- did not
'freeze', as usual, but remained in a 'liquid' state. The new quantum
material could serve as a model system to develop novel, highly sensitive
quantum sensors.
Ice Cutting
Experiment (youtube)
Supercooling is the process of lowering the temperature of a liquid or
a gas below its freezing point without it becoming a solid.
Supercritical Liquid-Gas Boundaries are lines in the
pressure-temperature (pT) diagram that delimit more liquid-like and more
gas-like states of a supercritical fluid. They comprise the Fisher–Widom
line, the Widom line, and the Frenkel line.
Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under
pressure and
freezing again when the pressure is reduced. Many sources state that
regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of
ice, with a heavy weight attached to it.
De-icing is the process of removing snow, ice or frost from a
surface. Anti-icing is understood
to be the application of chemicals that not only de-ice but also remain on
a surface and continue to delay the reformation of ice for a certain
period of time, or prevent adhesion of ice to make mechanical removal
easier.
Ice-proof coating for big structures.
Cold is having a low or
inadequate
temperature. The
feeling or
sensation of
coldness or having been made cold by ice or
refrigeration. The sensation
produced by low temperatures. Lacking the warmth of life or the absence of
heat.
Antarctica: A Year on Ice is a documentary set in Antarctica,
specifically in the Ross Island region, which is home to two research
bases: United States' McMurdo Station and New Zealand's Scott Base.
Spinning ice disk in Michigan's Pine River. An ice disc forms when a
section of ice on a partially frozen river breaks off and is pushed in
circular rotation by an eddy current, smoothing the ice disc into a
perfect circle.
Dunking a steel ball
into liquid nitrogen and then into water. Water freezing is an exothermic
process. Water heats up as it freezes.
-321°F Japanese
Mirror-Polished Ice Ball— Exothermic Ice Formation (youtube).
Exothermic Process describes a process or reaction that releases
energy from the system to its surroundings, usually in the form of
heat, but also in a form
of light (e.g. a spark, flame, or flash), electricity (e.g. a battery), or
sound (e.g. explosion heard when burning hydrogen).
Evaporation -
Dehydration
Halo
as an optical phenomenon
is an
optical phenomenon
produced by
Light interacting with
ice
crystals suspended in the
atmosphere,
resulting in a wide variety of colored or white rings, arcs and spots in
the sky. Many halos are near the Sun or Moon, but others occur elsewhere
or even in the opposite part of the sky. Halo types are the circular halo
(properly called the 22° halo), light pillars and sun dogs, but there are
many more; some of them fairly common, others (extremely) rare. (Halo is also known as a nimbus, icebow or gloriole).
Rainbows -
Holography -
Aurora.
Vapor Tracers light up as they interact with ionized or neutral
particles in the atmosphere, making the movements of these particles
visible. Different types of tracers light up in the presence of different
particles. When barium is exposed to sunlight it ionizes rapidly and glows
purple-red. Watching the dance of the barium clouds could provide
information about how charged particles move in the ionosphere. But barium
that is not ionized, which can be enhanced with the addition of strontium
or lithium, can also be used to track neutral particles. Lithium alone can
also be used to track neutral winds and can actually be used during
daylight to track emissions, but glows a bright red at night.
Ice Core Laboratory: Analizing Earths History by
studying
Ice Cores that go back thousands of years.
Ice Water
Molecules Arranged in a Lattice of Squares Between 2 Sheets of
Graphene (youtube)
Cause of Ripples on Icicles. Experimental physicists growing icicles
are closer to understanding why some form with ripples up and down their
outsides, while others form with smooth, slick, even surfaces. By growing
icicles from water samples with different contaminants like sodium
chloride (salt), dextrose (sugar) and fluorescent dye, they discovered
that water impurities become entrapped within icicles as they form and
subsequently create chevron patterns that contribute to a ripple effect
around their circumferences.
Icicle
is a spike of ice formed when water falling from an object
freezes. Icicles can form during bright, sunny, but subfreezing
weather, when ice or
snow melted by sunlight or some
other heat source (such as a poorly insulated building), refreezes as it
drips off under exposed conditions. Over time continued water runoff will
cause the icicle to grow. Another set of conditions is during ice storms,
when rain falling in air slightly below freezing slowly accumulates as
numerous small icicles hanging from twigs, leaves, wires, etc. Thirdly,
icicles can form wherever water seeps out of or drips off vertical
surfaces such as road cuts or cliffs. Under some conditions these can
slowly form the "frozen waterfalls" favored by ice climbers. Icicles form
on surfaces which might have a smooth and straight, or irregular shape,
which in turn influences the shape of an icicle. Another influence is
melting water, which might flow toward the icicle in a straight line or
which might flow from several directions. Impurities in the water can lead
to ripples on the surface of the icicles. Icicles elongate by the growth
of ice as a tube into the pendant drop. The wall of this ice tube is about
0.1 mm (0.004 in) and the width 5 mm (0.2 in). As a result of this growth
process, the interior of a growing icicle is liquid water. The growth of
an icicle both in length and in width can be calculated and is a
complicated function of air temperature, wind speed, and the water flux
into the icicle. The growth rate in length typically varies with time, and
can in ideal conditions be more than 1 cm (0.39 in) per minute. Given the
right conditions, icicles may also form in caves (in which case they are
also known as ice stalactites). They can also form within salty water
(brine) sinking from sea ice. These so-called brinicles can kill sea
urchins and starfish, which was observed by BBC film crews near Mount
Erebus, Antarctica.
Frogs that
avoid freezing to death when frozen solid.
North American Frog,
Marsh
Frog and
Wood
Frog.
Hibernation.
Ice Cap is an ice mass
that covers less than 50,000 km2 of land area (usually covering a highland
area). Larger ice masses covering more than 50,000 km2 are termed ice
sheets. Ice caps are not constrained by topographical features (i.e., they
will lie over the top of mountains). By contrast, ice masses of similar
size that are constrained by topographical features are known as ice
fields. The dome of an ice cap is usually centred on the highest point of
a massif. Ice flows away from this high point (the ice divide) towards the
ice cap's periphery. Ice caps have significant effects on the
geomorphology of the area they occupy. Plastic moulding, gouging and other
glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier's retreat. Many
lakes, such as the Great Lakes in North America, as well as numerous
valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of
years. On Earth, there are about 30 million km3 of total ice mass. The
average temperature of an ice mass ranges between −20 °C and −30 °C. The
core of an ice cap exhibits a constant temperature that ranges between −15
°C and −20 °C. A high-latitude region covered in ice, though strictly not
an ice cap (since they exceed the maximum area specified in the definition
above), are called polar ice caps; the usage of this designation is
widespread in the mass media and arguably recognized by experts.
Vatnajökull is an example of an ice cap in Iceland.
Accelerated Warming from Albedo. Lost sea ice exposes dark, open
waters, dramatically shifting the ocean surface from highly reflective to
one that absorbs most of the sun's energy. This can set off a vicious
cycle: ice loss leads to further warming of the ocean surface, which can
lead to more ice loss. The loss of polar reflectivity (
albedo)
is one climate-related amplification that has scientists losing sleep at
night. Accelerated warming due to higher Arctic temperatures. The loss and
thinning of Arctic sea ice raises regional temperatures, delaying the
formation of sea ice in the fall, and transferring more heat from the
ocean to the air. If higher air temperatures speed the degradation of
frozen ground (permafrost) on adjacent lands, they could release vast
stores of carbon often trapped in the permafrost for thousands of
years—further
amplifying
climate change.
Albedo
is the measure of the diffuse reflection of
solar radiation out
of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a
planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured (via an albedometer)
on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident
radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident
radiation). Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity to the
irradiance (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion
reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but
also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching
the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition,
geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). While
bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence
(i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional
integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The
temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux
measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a
specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire
spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often
given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface
(between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm),
which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees
absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright
(e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in
climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for
sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the
upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30–35% because of cloud cover,
but widely varies locally across the surface because of different
geological and environmental features.
Glacier is a
persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own
weight; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation
(melting and sublimation) over many years, often centuries. Glaciers
slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating
crevasses, seracs, and other distinguishing features. They also abrade
rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques
and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much
thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.
On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets in the
polar regions, but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every
continent including Oceania's high-latitude oceanic islands such as New
Zealand and Papua New Guinea. Between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only
in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East
Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about
10 percent of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly
13,000,000 km2 (5×106 sq mi) or about 98 percent of Antarctica's
13,200,000 km2 (5.1×106 sq mi), with an average thickness of 2,100 m
(7,000 ft). Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental
glaciers. Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth.
Many glaciers from temperate, alpine and seasonal polar climates store
water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of
meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the
glacier to melt, creating a water source that is especially important for
plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. Within
high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature
difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. Because glacial
mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g.,
precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes
are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change and
are a major source of variations in sea level. A large piece of compressed
ice, or a glacier, appears blue, as large quantities of water appear blue.
This is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than
blue. The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air
bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by
pressure increasing the density of the created ice.
Beautiful Glaciers and Ice Photos -
Rain -
Erosion
Fresh understanding of ice age frequency. A chance find of an
unstudied Antarctic sediment core has led researchers to flip our
understanding of how often
ice ages
occurred in Antarctica.
Some of Earth’s water may have existed before the Sun was born?
Wadsleyite is found to be stable in the upper part of the Transition
Zone of the
Earth's mantle between
410–520 kilometres (250–320 mi) in depth. Because of oxygens not bound to
silicon in the Si2O7 groups of wadsleyite, it leaves some oxygen atoms
underbonded, and as a result, these oxygens are hydrated easily, allowing
for high concentrations of hydrogen atoms in the mineral. Hydrous
wadsleyite is considered a potential site for water storage in the Earth's
mantle due to the low electrostatic potential of the underbonded oxygen
atoms. Although wadsleyite does not contain H in its chemical formula, it
may contain more than 3 percent by weight H2O, and may coexist with a
hydrous melt at transition zone pressure-temperature conditions. The
solubility of water and the density of wadsleyite depend on the
temperature and pressure in the Earth. Even though their maximum water
storage capabilities might be reduced to about 0.5-1 wt% along the normal
geotherm, the Transition Zone which hold up to 60 vol% wadsleyite could
still be a major water reservoir in the Earth’s interior. Furthermore, the
transformation resulting in wadsleyite is thought to occur also in the
shock event when a meteorite impacts the Earth or another planet at very
high velocity.
Wadsleyite is a high-pressure phase of polymorphous Mg2SiO4.
An orthorhombic mineral with the formula β-Mg2SiO4, it was first found in
nature in the Peace River meteorite from Alberta, Canada. It is formed by
a phase transformation from forsterite (α-Mg2SiO4) under increasing
pressure and eventually transforms into spinel-structured ringwoodite (γ-Mg2SiO4)
as pressure increases further. The structure can take up a limited amount
of other bivalent cations instead of magnesium, but contrary to the α and
γ structures, a β structure with the sum formula Fe2SiO4 is not
thermodynamically stable. Its cell parameters are approximately a = 5.7 Å,
b = 11.7 Å and c = 8.24 Å.
Ringwoodite is a high-pressure phase of Mg2SiO4 (magnesium silicate)
formed at high temperatures and pressures of the Earth's mantle between
525 and 660 km (326 and 410 mi) depth. It may also contain iron and
hydrogen. It is polymorphous with the olivine phase forsterite (a
magnesium iron silicate). Ringwoodite is notable for being able to contain
hydroxide ions (oxygen and hydrogen atoms bound together) within its
structure. In this case two hydroxide ions usually take the place of a
magnesium ion and two oxide ions. Combined with evidence of its occurrence
deep in the Earth's mantle, this suggests that there is from one to three
times the world ocean's equivalent of water in the mantle transition zone
from 410 to 660 km deep.
Oceans
Deuterium
is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen. The nucleus of deuterium,
called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far
more common hydrogen isotope, protium, has no neutron in the nucleus.
Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth's oceans of about one atom in 6420 of hydrogen.
Snow
Snowflakes is a single
ice crystal that has achieved a
sufficient size, and may have amalgamated with others, then falls through
the Earth's atmosphere as snow. Each flake nucleates around a dust
particle in supersaturated air masses by attracting supercooled cloud
water droplets, which freeze and accrete in crystal form.
Complex Shapes
emerge as the flake moves through differing temperature and
humidity zones in the atmosphere, such that
individual snowflakes differ in detail from one another, but may be
categorized in eight broad classifications and at least 80 individual
variants. The main constituent shapes for ice
crystals, from which
combinations may occur, are needle, column, plate and rime. Snowflakes
appear white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to
diffuse reflection of the whole
spectrum of light by the small crystal
facets. Once snowflakes land and accumulate, they undergo metamorphosis
with changes in temperature and coalesce into a snowpack. The
characteristics of the snowpack reflect the changed nature of the
constituent snow crystals. Snow is the lightest form of
water. A snow flake is 0.02 grams and it takes 50 flakes to make a
gram.
What does a snowflake look like in zero gravity?
Wilson Bentley or Snowflake Bentley, was an American meteorologist and
photographer, who was the first known person to take detailed photographs
of snowflakes and record their features. He perfected a process of
catching flakes on black velvet in such a way that their images could be
captured before they either melted or sublimated. In
1931 Bentley worked with William J.
Humphreys of the U.S. Weather Bureau to publish
Snow Crystals, a monograph illustrated with 2,500 photographs.
The Snowflake Mystery (youtube) -
Dr Ken Libbrecht is the world expert on snowflakes.
Hexagonal Crystal Family is one of the six crystal families, which
includes two crystal systems (hexagonal and trigonal) and two lattice
systems (hexagonal and rhombohedral). While commonly confused, the
trigonal crystal system and the rhombohedral lattice system are not
equivalent. In particular, there are crystals with trigonal symmetry but
belong to the hexagonal lattice (such as α-Quartz). The hexagonal crystal
family consists of the 12 point groups such that at least one of their
space groups has the hexagonal lattice as underlying lattice, and is the
union of the hexagonal crystal system and the trigonal crystal system.
There are 52 space groups associated with it, which are exactly those
whose Bravais lattice is either hexagonal or rhombohedral.
Nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new
thermodynamic phase or a new structure via
self-assembly or
self-organization. Nucleation is typically defined to be the process that
determines how long an observer has to wait before the new phase or
self-organized structure appears.
Bubbles.
Ice
Pellets are a form of
precipitation consisting of
small, translucent balls of
ice. Ice pellets are smaller than hailstones
which form in thunderstorms rather than in winter, and are different from graupel ("soft hail") which is made of frosty white rime, and from a
mixture of rain and snow which is a slushy liquid or semisolid. Ice
pellets often bounce when they hit the ground or other solid objects, and
make a higher-pitched "tap" when striking objects like jackets,
windshields, and dried leaves, compared to the dull splat of liquid
raindrops. Pellets generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed
with
freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL (PE before
November 1998).
Ice
Storm (wiki).
Hail is a
form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets (American
English "
Sleet"), though
the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of
ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Hail is layers of ice. Ice
pellets fall generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly
inhibited during cold surface temperatures. Unlike other forms of water
ice such as graupel, which is made of rime, and ice pellets, which are
smaller and translucent, hailstones usually measure between 5 mm (0.2 in)
and 15 cm (6 in) in diameter. The METAR reporting code for hail 5 mm (0.20
in) or greater is GR, while smaller hailstones and graupel are coded GS.
Hail is possible within most thunderstorms as it is produced by
cumulonimbus, and within 2 nmi (3.7 km) of the parent storm. Hail
formation requires environments of strong, upward motion of air with the
parent thunderstorm (similar to tornadoes) and lowered heights of the
freezing level. In the mid-latitudes, hail forms near the interiors of
continents, while in the tropics, it tends to be confined to high
elevations. There are methods available to detect hail-producing
thunderstorms using weather satellites and weather radar imagery.
Hailstones generally fall at higher speeds as they grow in size, though
complicating factors such as melting, friction with air, wind, and
interaction with rain and other hailstones can slow their descent through
Earth's atmosphere. Severe weather warnings are issued for hail when the
stones reach a damaging size, as it can cause serious damage to human-made
structures and, most commonly, farmers' crops.
Freezing is a phase
transition in which a
liquid turns into a solid
when its temperature is lowered below its
freezing point. For most
substances, the melting and freezing points are the same temperature;
however, certain substances possess differing solid–liquid transition
temperatures.
Antifreeze Protein refers to a class of polypeptides produced by
certain animals, plants, fungi and bacteria that permit their survival in
temperatures below the freezing point of water. AFPs bind to small ice
crystals to inhibit the growth and recrystallization of ice that would
otherwise be fatal. There is also increasing evidence that AFPs interact
with mammalian cell membranes to protect them from cold damage. This work
suggests the involvement of AFPs in cold acclimatization. Antarctic fish
have antifreeze blood, but it might fill them with ice crystals over time.
In the icy waters of the Antarctic, most of the native fish have special
proteins in their blood that act like antifreeze. The proteins bind to ice
crystals, keeping them small to prevent the formation of fish popsicles.
Avalanche is an event that occurs when a cohesive slab of snow lying
upon a weaker layer of snow fractures and slides down a steep slope.
Avalanches are typically triggered in a starting zone from a mechanical
failure in the snowpack (slab avalanche) when the forces of the snow
exceed its strength but sometimes only with gradual widening (loose snow
avalanche). After initiation, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and
grow in mass and volume as they entrain more snow. An avalanche can travel
up to 4 times as fast as water over a waterfall. If the avalanche moves
fast enough, some of the snow may mix with the air forming a powder snow
avalanche, which is a type of
gravity current.
Slides of rocks or debris, behaving in a similar way to snow, are also
referred to as avalanches (
see
rockslide). The remainder of this article refers to snow avalanches.
The load on the snowpack may be only due to gravity, in which case failure
may result either from weakening in the snowpack or increased load due to
precipitation. Avalanches initiated by this process are known as
spontaneous avalanches. Avalanches can also be triggered by other loading
conditions such as human or biologically related activities. Seismic
activity may also trigger the failure in the snowpack and avalanches.
Although primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have
the capability to entrain ice, rocks, trees, and other surficial material.
However, they are distinct from slushflows which have higher water content
and more laminar flow, mudslides which have greater fluidity, rock slides
which are often ice free, and serac collapses during an icefall.
Avalanches are not rare or random events and are endemic to any mountain
range that accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common
during winter or spring but glacier movements may cause ice and snow
avalanches at any time of year. In mountainous terrain, avalanches are
among the most serious objective natural hazards to life and property,
with their destructive capability resulting from their potential to carry
enormous masses of snow at high speeds. There is no universally accepted
classification system for different forms of avalanches. Avalanches can be
described by their size, their destructive potential, their initiation
mechanism, their composition and their dynamics.
Crystals
Crystal is a
solid material whose
composite parts are arranged in a
highly ordered microscopic
structure, forming a
crystal
lattice that
extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are
usually identifiable by their
geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces
with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of
crystals and crystal formation is known as
crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of
crystal growth is called
crystallization or solidification.(atoms,
molecules, or ions).
Ice crystals.
Rocks -
Minerals -
Fractals -
Symmetry -
Automaton -
Synchronicity
-
Periodic -
Piezoelectric
Crystalline is consisting of crystals or
composed of crystals or containing the nature of crystals. Having the
structure and form of a crystal. Distinctly or sharply outlined.
Transmitting light; able to be seen through with clarity.
Crystallography is the branch of
science
that studies the formation and
structure of crystals. The experimental
science of determining the arrangement of
atoms in crystalline solids.
Arrays.
Crystal Structure is a description of the
ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or
molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the
intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form
symmetric patterns that repeat along the
principal directions of
three-dimensional
space in matter.
Snow Flakes.
Crystal System is a set of point groups (a group of geometric
symmetries with at least one fixed point). A
lattice system is a set
of Bravais lattices. Space groups are classified into crystal systems
according to their point groups, and into lattice systems according to
their Bravais lattices. Crystal systems that have space groups assigned to
a common lattice system are combined into a crystal family. The seven
crystal systems are
triclinic,
monoclinic,
orthorhombic,
tetragonal,
trigonal,
hexagonal, and
cubic. Informally, two crystals are in the same crystal system if they
have similar symmetries (albeit there are many exceptions). Tetragonal is
denoting a crystal system or three-dimensional geometric arrangement
having three axes at right angles, two of them equal.
Polygons.
Crystallization is the natural or artificial process where a solid forms where
the atoms or molecules are
highly organized in a
structure known as a
crystal. Some of the ways which
crystals form are through precipitating
from a solution, melting or more rarely deposition directly from a gas.
Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in
which mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid
crystalline phase occurs. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs
in a crystallizer. Crystallization is therefore related to precipitation,
although the result is not amorphous or disordered, but a crystal.
Recrystallization in chemistry is a technique used to purify
chemicals. By dissolving both impurities and a compound in an appropriate
solvent, either the desired compound or impurities can be removed from the
solution, leaving the other behind. It is named for the crystals often
formed when the compound precipitates out. Alternatively,
recrystallization can refer to the natural growth of larger ice crystals
at the expense of smaller ones.
What does Ice Crystals look like in Space?
Pattern Formation during Ice Crystal Growth?
Quasicrystal or a quasiperiodic crystal, is a structure that is
ordered but not
periodic. A
quasicrystalline
pattern
can continuously fill all available space, but it lacks translational
symmetry. While crystals, according to the classical crystallographic
restriction theorem, can possess only two-, three-, four-, and six-fold
rotational symmetries, the Bragg diffraction pattern of quasicrystals
shows sharp peaks with other symmetry orders—for instance, five-fold.
A Deep Link Between 3D and 8D -
E8 -
Planck Length -
Quasi-Particles.
Molecules can make crystals if the atoms or
molecules that make up the substance are arranged in a regular, periodic
way. This regular arrangement is called a
lattice. Atoms arrange
themselves in a
lattice
to form a crystal because of a net attractive force between their
constituent electrons and atomic nuclei. The crystals formed by the
bonding of atoms belong to one of three categories, classified by their
bonding: ionic, covalent, and metallic.
Ionic crystals are composed of alternating positive and negative ions.
Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by a "sea" of mobile
valence electrons. Covalent crystals are composed of atoms which are
covalently bonded to one another. Molecular crystals are held together by
weak intermolecular forces. Layered solids are molecular crystals formed
by the packing of giant planar macromolecules called layers or lamellae.
The bonds between the atoms present in the layer are strong, primarily
covalent, while those between the atoms of adjacent lamellae are weak,
essentially of the Van der Waals type.
AI model can reveal the structures of crystalline materials. Chemists
have developed a generative AI model that can make it much easier to
determine the structures of powdered crystal materials. The prediction
model could help researchers characterize materials for use in batteries,
magnets, and many other applications.
The
Rule of 4 in Materials. Materials follow the Rule of Four, but
scientists don't know why just yet. The unit cell, which is the smallest
possible cell in a crystal
structure, is made
out of a
multiple of 4 atoms. The abundance
of multiple of fours does not even correlate with highly symmetric
structures but rather with low symmetries and loosely packed arrangements.
A
Random Forest algorithm with an accuracy of 87% can calculate whether
a given compound will follow the Rule of Four or not.
Unit
Cell is a repeating unit formed by the vectors spanning the points of
a
lattice. Despite its
suggestive name, the unit cell (unlike a unit vector, for example) does
not necessarily have unit size, or even a particular size at all. Rather,
the primitive cell is the closest analogy to a unit vector, since it has a
determined size for a given lattice and is the basic building block from
which larger cells are constructed.
Quartz
is a hard, crystalline
mineral
composed of silica. Crystals are composed of purified substances in which
atoms or ions are arranged in three spatial dimensions in the form of a
lattice.
Amethyst
is crystalline quartz in colors ranging from pale lilac to deep reddish
purple.
Citrine is a variety of quartz whose color ranges from pale yellow to
brown due to a submicroscopic distribution of colloidal ferric hydroxide
impurities. Resembling topaz.
Bismuth Crystals -
Terahertz Waveguides
Dynamical Fractal discovered in clean Magnetic Crystal. Researchers
have uncovered an altogether new type of fractal appearing in a class of
magnets called
spin ices.
The discovery was surprising because the
fractals were seen in a clean three-dimensional crystal, where they
conventionally would not be expected. Even more remarkably, the fractals
are visible in dynamical properties of the crystal, and hidden in static
ones. These features motivated the appellation of 'emergent dynamical
fractal'. The nature and properties of materials depend strongly on
dimension. Imagine how different life in a one-dimensional or
two-dimensional world would be from the three dimensions we're commonly
accustomed to. With this in mind, it is perhaps not surprising that
fractals - objects with fractional dimension -- have garnered significant
attention since their discovery. Despite their apparent strangeness,
fractals arise in surprising places -- from snowflakes and lightning
strikes to natural coastlines.
How
drugs can be identified by the crystals they form. The crystalline
form of a drug affects properties such as its solubility, stability,
dissolution rate, bioavailability and tabletability, and so understanding
the crystalline state is crucial for many of the activities of the
pharmaceutical industry. Crystallinity plays an important role in drug
dissolution rate, physical and chemical stability, physical properties of
tablet compaction and drug bioavailability. Even a small amount of
amorphous phase in a crystalline sample may significantly change its
physical and chemical properties.
Spontaneously emerging crystal arrangements in perovskite halides.
From defects to order. A new hybrid layered perovskite featuring elusive
spontaneous defect ordering has been found, report scientists. By
introducing specific concentrations of thiocyanate ions into FAPbI3 (FA =
formamidinium), they observed that ordered columnar defects appeared in
the stacked crystalline layers, taking up one-third of the lattice space.
These findings could pave the way to an innovative strategy for adjusting
the properties of hybrid perovskites, leading to practical advances in
optoelectronics and energy generation.
Cocrystal are solids that are crystalline single phase materials
composed of two or more different molecular or ionic compounds generally
in a stoichiometric ratio which are neither solvates nor simple salts." A
broader definition is that cocrystals "consist of two or more components
that form a unique crystalline structure having unique properties."
Several subclassifications of cocrystals exist. Cocrystals can encompass
many types of compounds, including hydrates, solvates and clathrates,
which represent the basic principle of host–guest chemistry. Hundreds of
examples of cocrystallization are reported annually.
Time
Crystal is a structure that
repeats in
time, as well as in space. Normal three-dimensional crystals have a
repeating pattern in space, but remain unchanged as time passes. Time
crystals repeat themselves in time as well, leading the crystal to change
from moment to moment. If a discrete time translation
symmetry is broken
(which may be realized in open driven systems), then the system is
referred to as a discrete time crystal. A discrete time crystal never
reaches thermal equilibrium, as it is a type of non-equilibrium matter, a
form of matter proposed in 2012, and first observed in 2017. A time
crystal in condensed matter physics, is a quantum system of particles
whose
lowest-energy
state is one in which the particles are in repetitive motion. The
system cannot lose energy to the environment and come to rest because it
is already in its quantum
ground state.
Because of this the motion of the particles does not really represent
kinetic energy like other motion, it has
"motion without energy".
Time is
Relative -
Quantum Mechanics -
Beam Splitter -
Time Lapse
Condensed
Matter Physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic
and microscopic physical properties of matter, especially the solid and
liquid phases which arise from electromagnetic forces between atoms. More
generally, the subject deals with "condensed"
phases of matter: systems of many
constituents with strong interactions between them. More exotic condensed
phases include the superconducting phase exhibited by certain materials at
low temperature, the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins
on crystal lattices of atoms, and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in
ultracold atomic systems. Condensed matter physicists seek to understand
the behavior of these phases by experiments to measure various material
properties, and by applying the physical laws of quantum mechanics,
electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, and other theories to develop
mathematical models. The diversity of systems and phenomena available for
study makes condensed matter physics the most active field of contemporary
physics: one third of all American physicists self-identify as condensed
matter physicists, and the Division of Condensed Matter Physics is the
largest division at the American Physical Society. The field overlaps with
chemistry, materials science, engineering and nanotechnology, and relates
closely to atomic physics and biophysics. The theoretical physics of
condensed matter shares important concepts and methods with that of
particle physics and nuclear physics. A variety of topics in physics such
as crystallography, metallurgy, elasticity, magnetism, etc., were treated
as distinct areas until the 1940s, when they were grouped together as
solid state physics. Around the 1960s, the study of physical properties of
liquids was added to this list, forming the basis for the more
comprehensive specialty of condensed matter physics. The Bell Telephone
Laboratories was one of the first institutes to conduct a research program
in condensed matter physics.
Adatom
is an atom that lies on a crystal surface, and can be thought of as the
opposite of a
surface vacancy, which is a type of
point defect in a crystal.
Ice.
Physics: Crystals
1958 Alan Holden - Bell Laboratories - PSSC Physical Science Study
Committee (youtube) - Crystal is based on the microscopic arrangement
of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid
where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (Quasicrystals are an
exception. Not all solids are crystals. Most macroscopic inorganic solids
are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks,
etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as
glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or
noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There
are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids:
most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent
heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does.
Crystallite is a small or even microscopic crystal which forms, for
example, during the cooling of many materials. The orientation of
crystallites can be random with no preferred direction, called random
texture, or directed, possibly due to growth and processing conditions.
Texture in crystalline is the distribution of crystallographic
orientations of a polycrystalline sample (it is also part of the
geological fabric). A sample in which these orientations are fully random
is said to have no distinct texture. If the crystallographic orientations
are not random, but have some preferred orientation, then the sample has a
weak, moderate or strong texture. The degree is dependent on the
percentage of crystals having the preferred orientation. Texture is seen
in almost all engineered materials, and can have a great influence on
materials properties. Also, geologic rocks show texture due to their
thermo-mechanic history of formation processes.
Alum any
of a number of analogous crystalline double sulfates of a monovalent metal
(or group) and a trivalent metal.
Mica
group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals includes several closely
related materials having nearly perfect basal cleavage. All are
monoclinic, with a tendency towards pseudohexagonal crystals, and are
similar in chemical composition. The nearly perfect cleavage, which is the
most prominent characteristic of mica, is explained by the hexagonal
sheet-likearrangement of its atoms.
Graphene.
Thousands of stars turning into crystals. The first direct evidence of
white dwarf stars solidifying into crystals
has been discovered by astronomers, and our skies are filled with them.
Amorphous Solid is a solid that
lacks the
long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. Glass is an
amorphous solid that exhibits a
glass transition.
Polymers are often amorphous. Other types of amorphous solids include
gels, thin films, and nanostructured materials such as glass.
New crystalline form of ice. Scientists elucidate crystal structure
for
exotic ice XIX. Three years ago in
2018, chemists found evidence for the existence of a new variety of
ice.
Until then, 18 types of crystalline ice were known. The team now reports
on the elucidation of the crystal structure of ice XIX using
neutron diffraction.
New method to design diamond lattices and other crystals from microscopic
building blocks. Researchers describe a technique for using LEGO®-like
elements at the scale of a few billionths of a meter. Further, they are
able to cajole these design
elements to
self-assemble, with each LEGO® piece identifying its proper mate and
linking up in a precise sequence to complete the desired nanostructure.
Colloidal Crystal is an ordered
array of colloid
particles and fine grained materials analogous to a standard crystal whose
repeating subunits are atoms or molecules. A natural example of this
phenomenon can be found in the gem opal, where spheres of silica assume a
close-packed locally periodic structure under moderate compression. Bulk
properties of a colloidal crystal depend on composition, particle size,
packing arrangement, and degree of regularity. Applications include
photonics, materials processing, and the study of self-assembly and phase
transitions.
Colloidal Crystal Template -
Nano Machines.
Dormant - Resurrection - Waiting for the Right Time
Resurrection Plant is any
poikilohydric plant that
can survive
extreme dehydration, even over months or years.
Synchronous and Asynchronous
Communication -
Seeds -
Metamorphosis -
Time Lapse -
Longevity
Back From the Brink. Biologists explore the molecular underpinnings of
cells that recover from the verge of
programmed death.
Scores of plant species are capable of Living Dormant under the soil for
up to 20 years, enabling them to survive through difficult times.
Rip Van Winkle
(wiki).
Dormant is a condition of
biological rest or
suspended animation and inactive but
capable of
becoming active. A long geological
life-cycle or very slow growing.
Not erupting but not extinct either.
Reemerge is to appear
again.
Adaptation -
Regeneration -
Decay Half-Life -
Entropy -
Decompose -
Cell Death
Dormancy
is a
period in an organism's
life cycle when growth,
development, and (in
animals) physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes
metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserve energy.
Ice.
Hibernation is a
state of inactivity and
metabolic depression in endotherms. Hibernation refers to a season of
heterothermy characterized by
low
body temperature, slow breathing and heart rate, and low metabolic
rate.
Grizzly bears'
muscles don't atrophy during hibernation because they
produce additional amino acids that stimulate
muscle cell growth.
Suspended Animation is the
temporary
cessation of most vital functions
without death, as in a dormant
seed or a hibernating animal.
Suspended animation is the temporary (short- or long-term) slowing or
stopping of biological function so that physiological capabilities are
preserved. States of suspended animation are common in micro-organisms and
some plant tissue, such as seeds. Many animals, including large ones, may
undergo hibernation, and most plants have periods of dormancy. This
article focuses primarily on the potential of large animals, especially
humans, to undergo suspended animation.
Viruses.
Sleeping -
Body Temp -
Cryogenics -
Freeze Frame -
Fasting -
Space Travel -
Blackholes
Brumation is a term used for the
hibernation-like state that
cold-blooded animals utilize during very cold weather. On the other
end of the spectrum is a state known as aestivation, which like brumation,
provides a way for reptiles to handle temperature extremes. All reptiles,
including snakes, lizards, turtles, tortoises, alligators, and crocodiles,
some insects such as the busy dragonflies and bees, amphibians such as
frogs, toads, and salamanders, as well as fish, including sharks, are all
cold-blooded animals.
Drought.
Torpor is a state of
decreased physiological activity in an animal, usually marked by a
reduced body temperature and
metabolic rate. Torpor
enables animals to survive periods of reduced food availability.
Study reveals molecular mechanisms behind hibernation in mammals.
Researchers have characterized changes in the structure of motor proteins,
called
myosins, and energy consumption that occur during hibernation,
highlighting key differences in large and small hibernators. The
hypothesis is that changes in the proportion of myosin in the DRX or SRX
states may contribute to the reduced energy use seen during hibernation.
Plants adapted to Mediterranean climate may be more flexible in face of
unpredictable rains.
Different blossoming schedules have kept these flowers from driving
each other extinct. A big part of evolution is competition -- when there
are limited resources to go around, plants and animals have to duke it out
for nutrients, mates, and places to live. To figure out how China's
mountain meadows can support dozens of closely-related flowers without the
plants out-competing each other, scientists spent a summer carefully
documenting the flowering patterns of 34 Rhododendron species, and they
discovered the reason why the plants were able to coexist: they burst into
bloom at different points in the season so they don't have to compete for
pollinators.
Aestivation is a
state of animal dormancy, similar to hibernation,
characterized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate, that is entered
in response to high temperatures and arid conditions. It takes place
during times of heat and dryness, the hot dry season, which are often the
summer months. Invertebrate and vertebrate animals are known to enter this
state to avoid damage from high temperatures and the risk of desiccation.
Both terrestrial and aquatic animals undergo aestivation. The fossil
record suggests that aestivation may have evolved several hundred million
years ago. Organisms that aestivate appear to be in a fairly "light" state
of dormancy, as their physiological state can be rapidly reversed, and the
organism can quickly return to a normal state. A study done on Otala
lactea, a snail native to parts of Europe and Northern Africa, shows that
they can wake from their dormant state within ten minutes of being
introduced to a wetter environment. The primary physiological and
biochemical concerns for an aestivating animal are to conserve energy,
retain water in the body, ration the use of stored energy, handle the
nitrogenous end products, and stabilize bodily organs, cells, and
macromolecules. This can be quite a task as hot temperatures and arid
conditions may last for months. The depression of metabolic rate during
aestivation causes a reduction in macromolecule synthesis and degradation.
To stabilize the macromolecules, aestivators will enhance antioxidant
defenses and elevate chaperone proteins. This is a widely used strategy
across all forms of hypometabolism. These physiological and biochemical
concerns appear to be the core elements of hypometabolism throughout the
animal kingdom. In other words, animals who aestivate appear to go through
nearly the same physiological processes as animals that hibernate.
Siesta.
Cicadas
spend most of their lives as underground nymphs,
emerging only after 13 or 17 years, which may reduce losses by
starving their predators and eventually emerging in huge numbers that
overwhelm and satiate any remaining predators. The annual cicadas are
species that emerge every year. Though these cicada have lifecycles that
can vary from one to nine or more years as underground larvae, their
emergence above ground as adults is not synchronized, so some appear every
year. Cicadas have prominent eyes set wide apart, short antennae, and
membranous front wings. They have an exceptionally loud song, produced in
most species by the rapid buckling and unbuckling of drumlike tymbals.
Cicadidae has more than 3,000 species described from around the world;
many species remain undescribed.
List of Longest-Living Organisms (wiki)
Dormouse can
hibernate six months out of the year, or
even longer if the weather does not become warm enough, sometimes waking
for brief periods to eat food they had previously stored nearby. During
the summer, they accumulate fat in their bodies to nourish them through
the hibernation period. The sleepy behavior of The Dormouse character in
Lewis Carroll's
Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland reflects this familiar trait of dormice.
Biological Immortality is a state in which the rate of mortality from
senescence is stable or
decreasing, thus decoupling it from chronological age. Various unicellular
and multicellular species, including some vertebrates, achieve this state
either throughout their existence or after living long enough. A
biologically immortal living being can still die from means other than
senescence, such as through injury or disease. A long geological
life-cycle or very slow growing organism.
Uncovering secrets of plant regeneration. Plants regenerate using
pluripotent callus tissues and initiating the de novo formation of
shoot
apical meristem. However, the mechanisms governing the efficiency of
regeneration are unclear. Now, researchers have shown that the
WOX13
gene in Arabidopsis thaliana negatively regulates SAM formation from
callus and promotes its non-meristematic fate. The findings demonstrate
that the targeted disruption of WOX13 can significantly enhance shoot
regeneration efficiency, paving the way for future biotechnological
advancements. Plants have the unique ability to regenerate entirely from a
somatic cell, i.e., an ordinary cell that does not typically participate
in reproduction. This process involves the de novo (or new) formation of a
shoot apical meristem that gives rise to lateral organs, which are key for
the plant's reconstruction. At the cellular level, SAM formation is
tightly regulated by either positive or negative regulators (genes/protein
molecules) that may induce or restrict shoot regeneration, respectively.
But which molecules are involved? Are there other regulatory layers that
are yet to be uncovered?
How dormant bacteria comes back to life. Research provides answers to
long-standing mystery of bacterial spores, illuminating new paths for
disease prevention. Bacterial spores can survive for years, even
centuries, without nutrients, resisting heat, UV radiation, and
antibiotics. How inert, sleeping bacteria -- or spores -- spring back to
life has been a century-long mystery. New research identifies how sensor
proteins revive dormant bacteria. Discovery opens new routes to combat
spore resistance to antibiotics and sterilization. Findings can inform
novel strategies to prevent infections, food spoilage. sensors double as
channels through the membrane and remain closed during dormancy but
rapidly open when they detect nutrients. Once open, the channels allow
electrically charged ions to flow out through the cell membrane, setting
in motion the shedding of protective spore layers and the switching on of
metabolic processes after years -- or even centuries -- of dormancy. To
survive adverse environmental conditions, some bacteria go into dormancy
and become spores, with biological processes put on hold and layers of
protective armor around the cell. These biologically inert mini fortresses
allow bacteria to wait out periods of famine and shield themselves from
the ravages of extreme heat, dry spells, UV radiation, harsh chemicals,
and antibiotics.
Potential Involvement of Snail Members in Neuronal Survival and Astrocytic
Migration during the Gecko Spinal Cord Regeneration. -
Regeneration (stem
cells).
Rest
Frame of a particle is the coordinate system (frame of reference) in
which the particle is at
Rest.
Seeds inherit memories from their mother. Maternal and environmental
control of
seed dormancy is carried out
through novel epigenetic mechanisms. Seeds remain in a dormant state as
long as environmental conditions are not ideal for
germination. The depth of this sleep is
inherited from their mother. Researchers reveal how this maternal imprint
is transmitted through fragments of 'interfering' RNAs, which inactivate
genes, and that a similar mechanism enables to transmit another imprint,
that of the temperatures present during the development of the seed. This
mechanism allows the seed to optimize the timing of its
germination.
Vernalization is the induction of a
plant's flowering process
by
exposure to the prolonged cold of winter,
or by an artificial equivalent. After vernalization,
plants have acquired the
ability to flower, but they may require additional
seasonal cues or weeks
of growth before they will actually flower. This is sometimes used to
refer to herbal (non-woody) plants requiring a cold dormancy to produce
new shoots and leaves but this usage is discouraged. Many
plants grown in temperate
climates require vernalization and must experience a period of low winter
temperature to initiate or accelerate the flowering process. This ensures
that reproductive development and seed production occurs in spring and
winters, rather than in autumn. The needed cold is often expressed in
chill hours. Typical vernalization temperatures are between 5 and 10
degrees Celsius (40 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit). For many perennial plants,
such as fruit tree species, a period of cold is needed first to induce
dormancy and then later, after the requisite period of time, re-emerge
from that dormancy prior to flowering. Many monocarpic winter annuals and
biennials, including some ecotypes of Arabidopsis thaliana and winter
cereals such as wheat, must go through a prolonged period of cold before
flowering occurs.
Flowering Locus C is a
MADS-box
gene that in late-flowering ecotypes of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana
is responsible for vernalization. In a new seedling FLC is expressed,
which prevents flowering. Upon exposure to cold, less FLC is expressed (to
a degree depending on the amount of cold), and flowering becomes possible.
FLC is extensively regulated through epigenetic modifications and
transcriptional control. Plants and
seeds can
sense temperature changes, sunlight changes and moisture changes.
Plants can communicate.
Poikilohydry is
the lack of ability (structural or functional mechanism) to maintain
and/or regulate water content to achieve homeostasis of cells and tissue
connected with quick equilibration of cell/tissue water content to that of
the environment. Frequently, it is coupled with the capacity to tolerate
dehydration to low cell or tissue water content and to recover from it
without physiological damage. This condition occurs in such organisms as
the lichens and bryophytes that lack mechanisms, such as a waterproofing
cuticle and stomata that can help to prevent desiccation. Poikilohydry is
also noted in many forms of algae, which may be able to survive
desiccation between successive high tides, or during occasional stranding
due to the drying of a lake or pond. Similarly, poikilohydry occurs in
land plants which survive environmental conditions when water supplies are
seasonal or intermittent, as in the liverwort genus Targionia, which lives
in Mediterranean habitats with hot dry summers.
Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme
drying. A desiccant is a hygroscopic (attracts and holds water) substance
that induces or sustains such a state in its local vicinity in a
moderately sealed container.
Desiccator are sealable enclosures containing desiccants used for
preserving moisture-sensitive items such as cobalt chloride paper for
another use. A common use for desiccators is to protect chemicals which
are hygroscopic or which react with water from humidity.
Activation of the NaCl and drought-induced RD29A and
RD29B promoters by constitutively active Arabidopsis
MAPKK or MAPK proteins -
Eragrostis Nindensis
Transcriptome is the set of all messenger
RNA molecules in one cell or a
population of cells. It differs from the exome in that it includes only
those RNA molecules found in a specified cell population, and usually
includes the amount or concentration of each RNA molecule in addition to
the molecular identities.
Proteome is the entire set of
proteins expressed by a genome, cell,
tissue, or organism at a certain time. More specifically, it is the set of
expressed proteins in a given type of cell or organism, at a given time,
under defined conditions. The term is a blend of proteins and genome.
Proteomics is the study of the proteome.
Lipidome refers to the totality of lipids in cells.
Lipids are one of the four major molecular components of biological
organisms, along with proteins, sugars and nucleic acids.
Promoter in genetics is a region of
DNA that initiates transcription of a
particular gene. Promoters are located near the transcription start sites
of genes, on the same strand and upstream on the DNA (towards the 5'
region of the sense strand). Promoters can be about 100–1000 base pairs
long.
Arabidopsis are small flowering plants related to cabbage and mustard.
This genus is of great interest since it contains thale cress (
Arabidopsis
thaliana), one of the model organisms used for studying plant biology
and the
first plant to have its entire
genome sequenced and is a popular tool for understanding the molecular
biology of many plant traits, including
flower development and
light sensing.
Changes in thale cress are easily observed, making it a very useful model.
Abscisic acid lays an important part in plant responses to
environmental stress in response to decreased soil water potential.
Water Potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume
relative to pure water in reference conditions. Water potential quantifies
the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis,
gravity, mechanical pressure, or matrix effects such as capillary action
(which is caused by surface tension).
Clues to Possible Martian Life found in Chilean Desert. Samples
contained unusual and highly specialized microbes that were
distributed in patches, which was linked to the scarce availability of
water and nutrients.
Research provides insight on survivability of rare Wyoming plant -
Desert Yellowhead (wiki)
Density
Dependence processes occur when
population
growth rates are regulated by the density of a population. This article
will focus on density-dependence in the context of
macroparasite life
cycles. Negative density-dependence, or density-dependent restriction,
describes a situation in which population growth is curtailed by crowding,
predators and competition. In cell
biology, it describes the reduction in cell division. When a cell
population reaches a certain density, the amount of required growth
factors and nutrients available to each cell becomes insufficient to allow
continued cell growth.
Interesting Facts about Water
There are about 5
sextillion
atoms in a single drop
of water. (1 with 21 zeros). One drop of water has the volume
of about 0.05 mL.
There are more atoms in a glass of water than glasses of water
in all the oceans on Earth.
50 Quintillion
Atoms in a Grain of Sand. (50 with 18
zeros).
1
Nanometer is about the
width of 2 Silicon Atoms? Nanometer is 1 Millionth of a Millimeter.
2 Trillion
Hydrogen Atoms lined side by
side to cross the head of a pin that is 1 mm in diameter?
(1 Million * 1 Million = 1 Trillion) - (mm is 0.0393701 inches or 25.4 mm in 1 inch).
Because the density of water is 1, the mass is 0.05 g.
The molar mass of water (H2O) is 18.0 grams/mol (1.008 + 1.008 + 16.0).
How many molecules in a drop of water?
This means there is one mole of water in 18.0 grams.
One mole is
6.02 × 1023 molecules. (10²³) -
Avogadro Constant.
Then you can convert grams to number of atoms:
0.05 grams ÷ 18.0
grams × (6.02 × 1023 molecules) = 1.67 × 1021 molecule.
How Water conducts electricity, A watershed moment in understanding.
Dihydrogen Monoxide or Hydroxylic Acid?
Physics -
Action Physics -
Chemistry
What happens to Water in Space? (spheres)
Water in the Vacuum of Space
Water has Memory II
- Prof. Bernd Kroeplin Water research Germany (youtube) -
The World in a Drop.
"Our world view distinguishes between
natural science and
humanities,
between the world of the measurable and the world of unprovable
notions. And these
unprovable notions are also our feelings. And the world
distinguishes between the
spirit and the
matter, and the
shape, and the
form and the content of the shape and the form. (from the book "The world
in a drop" and the book "Water and its memory" by
Prof. Dr. Bernd Kröplin.
Sound
Shapes -
Photons and Phonons"The mind permeates matter and that
thoughts manifest themselves in material
structuring's much more extensively than we now think possible."
Giving Thanks to
clean water every time you drink it, will have
positive effects,
especially knowing that
you are 70%
water.
Water Memory
(2014 Documentary about Nobel Prize laureate Luc Montagnier) (youtube)
Masaru Emoto was a Japanese businessman, author and pseudo-scientist
who claimed that human consciousness could affect the
molecular structure
of water. He performed a series of experiments observing the physical
effect of words,
prayers,
music, and
environment on
the crystalline structure of water. Emoto exposed water to different
variables and subsequently froze it so that
crystalline structures formed.
The Mystery of
Water - What we know is a drop (youtube) - Words carrying an emotional
charge that affect water as well as
all living cells.
Structured Water is a
molecular arrangement
of water molecules that exists when water is near
hydrophilic
or water
loving surfaces. The majority of the water in your
body is structured
water as your bodily tissues are
hydrophilic, which is having a tendency
to mix with,
dissolve in, or be wetted by water. Plants
create structured water.
Spring Water -
Mineral Water
Hexagonal Water, also known as gel water,
structured water, cluster water, H3O2 or H3O2 is a term used in a
marketing term that claims the ability to create a certain configuration
of water that is better for the body. The term "
hexagonal water" refers to
a cluster of water molecules forming a
hexagonal shape that supposedly
enhances nutrient absorption, removes metabolic wastes, and enhances
cellular communication, among other things.
H3O2 - Hydroxide, hydrate (Molecular Formula H3O2 - Average mass
35.023 Da - Monoisotopic mass 35.013851 Da - ChemSpider ID10632505).
(Negative Charge on hydrophilic layer or material).
Rain
Clouds.
4 Phases of Water -
Solid, Liquid, Gas and
Gel or
Jell-O
phase which occurs next to water loving
hydrophilic surfaces.
Two distinctly different liquid states of water. Using X-ray lasers,
researchers have been able to follow the transformation between two
distinct different liquid
states of water. At around minus 63 Celsius, the
two liquids exist at different pressure regimes with a density difference
of 20 percent. By rapidly varying the pressure before the sample could
freeze, it was possible to observe one liquid changing into the other in
real time.
Quantum Coherent Water and Life -
Water Basic
Knowledge
Holy
Water is water that has been
blessed by a person.
Blessing
is wishing for
good things to happen to someone and for God or the Angles
to look over them with
gracious kindness as well as
protect them from harm
and evil.
Baptism
the using water in a
purification ritual and as a blessing that is also
believed to
cleanse someone from sin and
awaken them to life in a special
way. A small amount of water is either poured over a persons head,
sometimes as they are standing or kneeling in water, or sometimes they are
immersed or completely
submerged under the water for a brief moment.
Coherent Domain. Anyone who has ever watched a school of fish in the
ocean can understand what
coherence is. Each fish is free to move independently, yet the group
responds
simultaneously—as a whole. It is
as though the fish follow an unseen conductor, yet no conductor exists. In
the world of physics, this kind of relationship is referred to as quantum
coherence. At the smallest quantum level, there is
unity and
cooperation or coherence. This
allows
individual components to respond together as a larger unit.
Shapes from Sound
-
Water Therapy -
Energy from Water
The Topography of
Tears. Microscopic images of tears at different emotional states, like
tears of joy and tears of grief. Even though Fisher uses scientific
equipment and processes to make her images, the project isn't scientific,
and it isn't meant to be. Rather than document her tears' biological
properties, she instead reflects on "their existential and poetic nature."
When making an image, Fisher does what so many photographers do: searches
for meaning in what's in front of her.
Electromagnetic water cloak eliminates drag and wake. Researchers have
developed a water cloaking concept based on electromagnetic forces that
could eliminate an object's wake, greatly reducing its drag while
simultaneously helping it avoid detection.
Magnetic and Electric Effects on Water.
Rain has that certain
smell, so why does rain have an odor?
Petrichor is the earthy scent produced when rain falls on
dry
soil.
How Much Does One Ml Of Water Weigh At 4
Degrees Celsius?
Pure water has the highest density at the temperature of 3.98
degrees Celsius. The density is then 999.975 kg/m3 or 0.9999750
g/cm3 or 0.9999750 g/mL.
At 4°C pure water has a density (weight or mass) of about 1 g/cu.cm,
1 g/ml, 1 kg/litre, 1000 kg/cu.m, 1 tonne/cu.m.
Water was used as the basis for establishing the
metric unit of mass, however, so it is easier to remember
that a
cubic centimeter of it has a mass of 1 gm. Knowing that
there are 1000 cubic centi-meters in a
liter, you can also use 1
kilogram (1000 grams) per liter for water's
mass density.
Properties of Water is a polar inorganic compound that is at
room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a
hint of blue. The simplest
hydrogen chalcogenide, it is by far the most
studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal
solvent" for its ability to dissolve many
substances. This allows it to be the "solvent of life". It is the only
common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in nature.
The
magnetic fluctuations of the tides
depend on the
electrical conductivity of the water -- and the
electrical conductivity of the water depends on its temperature. More
than 90 percent of the excess heat in the Earth system goes into the
ocean.
Water is the second most abundant substance in the universe. It
dissolves more materials than any other solvent. It stores
incredible amounts of energy. Life as we know it would not be
possible without it. And although it covers more than 70% of the
Earth’s surface, many parts of the world are in dire straits for
lack of it. Water makes up 75% of
our bodies. Every day we drink
it, bathe in it, clean with it and use it to dispose of our
wastes. Two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. The hydrogen
bonds that continually form and reform between its slightly
negatively charged oxygen and slightly positively charged
hydrogen components. Thanks to these bonds, water molecules
attract one another far more strongly than those of almost any
other substance. As it cools from its liquid to solid state,
actually expands. Virtually every other substance becomes denser
as it “freezes,” but thanks to this remarkable property, ice
cubes float in our drinks. More importantly for living
organisms, lakes and other bodies of water freeze from the top
down. The average snow crystal contains about 10 quintillion (10
followed by 18 zeroes) water molecules,
it is easy to see why the number of possible combinations is
unimaginably large. Water has a cycle of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation and runoff back to seas and lakes.
The same is true among living organisms, where the hydrogen and
oxygen constituents of water are continually combining and
recombining through the processes of photosynthesis and
respiration. Each time we break down a molecule of glucose, we
produce six molecules of water, a reaction that takes place in
the typical human body about six septillion (6 followed by 24
zeroes) times per day. Even so, we still don’t produce enough
water to meet our own needs. 3% of the Earth’s water is fresh
water, the other 97% being found in the oceans. And about 70% of
this fresh water is found in glaciers and the ice caps of
Antarctica. Earth holds enough water to make a sphere about 860
miles in diameter.
Can you drink
same water molecule twice? Scientifically speaking, yes it is
possible to drink the same water twice. The astronauts on the space
station probably consume the same H2O molecules repeatedly. But drinking
water at home will be flushed into a septic system after we urinate. So
the chances that you will drink that same water molecule again is
extremely low, unless the sewage treatment plant is recycling and not
releasing the treated waste water back into a river or ocean.
Tawainese local
commercial farmers "cultivated the water", "stabilized the water", used
"aged water" to mix with the water of the next growing cycle, transferred
"good water" from a pond/tank to another recipient which the fish/shrimp
were not growing well or were sick to "cure the water", etc. They used
ancient Chinese principals and observations to help them to develop a
"feeling for the water"! They even say that "you do not "grow the fish,
you grow the water, fish is the result".
The resonant frequency
of water is
42.7 khz.
Water Encapsulated in a Double
Gelatinous Membrane.
Spherification is a culinary process that employs sodium
alginate and either calcium chloride or calcium glucate lactate to shape a
liquid into spheres, which visually and texturally resemble roe.
Sodium alginate (E-401) from the brown algae and
Calcium
Chloride (E-509) in a concrete proportions in order to
generate a gelification on the exterior of the liquid. The final
package is simple, cheap (2ct/unit), resistant, hygienic,
biodegradable and even eatable.
Green Career
Colored Ferrofluid
Displays (youtube) The Illumination' is a large
ferrofluid display
with a light in the base and reflective colored ferrofluid.
Water Philosophy
Stand Like a Mountain, Flow Like Water - “Be like water making its way through
cracks. Do not be assertive, but adjust to the object, and you
shall find a way around or through it. If nothing within you
stays rigid, outward things will disclose themselves.
Empty your mind, be formless.
shapeless, like water. If you put
water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a
bottle and it becomes the bottle. You put it in a teapot, it
becomes the teapot. Now, water can flow or it can crash. Be like
water, my friend.” - (
Bruce
Lee).
Bruce Lee - Interview in 1965 (youtube) - Water is the softest
substance in the world, but water can penetrate the hardest rocks in the
word. Water cannot be grasped and you cannot punch water or hurt it. Be
soft like water and be flexible and
adapt to your opponent.
Fighting Styles.
"The green reed which bends in the wind is stronger than
the mighty oak which breaks in a storm."
Adapting.
“Water
is fluid, soft, and yielding, but water will wear away rock, which is
rigid and cannot yield.” ~
Lao Tzu.
Ride the Wave -
Go with the Flow (don't swim
against the tide or try to swim up stream unless you're a fish).
Let it Go is to allow someone or something
to escape or go free. To relinquish one's grip on someone or something.
"The supreme goodness is like water. It benefits all
things without contention. In dwelling, it stays grounded. In being, it
flows to depths. In expression, it is honest. In confrontation, it stays
gentle. In governance, it does not control. In action, it aligns to
timing. It is content with its nature and therefore cannot be faulted."
Tao Te Ching.
Tethys in mythology is the Greek Titan goddess of clean water. "Please
help us again Tethys, we desperately need your support and your supreme
wisdom to help guide us back to a more secure and healthy world."
"Everyone should experience water,
and know what it feels like to swim like a fish. Either by
snorkeling or by scuba diving. After all, we all were born in
water, whether in the womb, or in the sea. Water is Life."