Soil
Soil is the material in the
top layer of the
surface of the
earth in which
plants can
grow (especially with reference to its quality or use). The part of the earth's surface consisting of
humus, disintegrated
rock and a mixture of
minerals, organic matter,
gases, liquids, and countless
organisms that
together support life on Earth. Soil is a natural body called the
pedosphere which has four important
functions: it is a medium for
plant growth; it is a means of
water storage, supply and purification; it is a
modifier of Earth's
atmosphere; it is
a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil. Sacred Sod.
Soil Science
is the study of soil as a
natural resource on the surface of the Earth including
soil
formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological,
and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the
use and
management of soils.
Fertilizer -
Fungus -
Microbiology -
Contamination -
Testing -
Water Management
-
Sensors -
Growing Food in Space -
Hydroponics
Soil
Physics is the study of soil physical properties and processes. It is
applied to management and prediction under natural and managed ecosystems.
Soil physics deals with the dynamics of physical soil components and their
phases as
solid, liquids, and gases. It
draws on the principles of physics,
physical
chemistry,
engineering, and
meteorology. It is especially important in
this day and age because most farmers require an understanding of
agroecosystems. Soil physics applies these principles to address practical
problems of
agriculture,
ecology, and engineering.
Soil Mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that
describes the behavior of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid
mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a heterogeneous mixture of
fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand,
and gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter.
Along with
rock mechanics, soil mechanics provides the theoretical basis
for analysis in geotechnical engineering, a subdiscipline of
civil
engineering, and
engineering
geology, a subdiscipline of geology. Soil mechanics is used to analyze
the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made
structures that are supported on or made of soil, or structures that are
buried in soils. Example applications are building and bridge foundations,
retaining walls,
dams, and buried pipeline
systems. Principles of soil mechanics are also used in related disciplines
such as engineering geology, geophysical engineering, coastal engineering,
agricultural engineering,
hydrology
and soil physics. This article describes the genesis and composition of
soil, the distinction between pore water pressure and inter-granular
effective stress, capillary action of fluids in the soil pore spaces, soil
classification, seepage and permeability, time dependent change of volume
due to squeezing water out of tiny pore spaces, also known as
consolidation, shear strength and stiffness of soils. The shear strength
of soils is primarily derived from friction between the particles and
interlocking, which are very sensitive to the effective stress. The
article concludes with some examples of applications of the principles of
soil mechanics such as slope stability, lateral earth pressure on
retaining walls, and bearing capacity of
foundations.
Soil Expansion
-
Sinkholes -
Earth Quakes
Soil Conservation is the prevention of soil loss from
erosion or reduced
fertility caused by over
usage,
acidification,
salinization or other chemical
soil
contamination.
Tillage.
Soil Ecology is the study of the interactions among
soil organisms, and between biotic and abiotic
aspects of the soil environment.
Soil Food Web describes how
groups of
organisms in soil interact with each
other and plants. The main groups of
micro-organisms that make up the soil food web are fungi, bacteria,
protozoa, nematodes and micro-arthropods. These groups interact with each
other and with plants to help create functional ecosystems.
Soil
Quality -
Soil Health -
Soil Fertility
Regenerative Agriculture is a
conservation and
rehabilitation approach
to food and farming systems. It focuses on topsoil regeneration,
increasing biodiversity, improving the water cycle,
enhancing ecosystem
services, supporting
biosequestration,
increasing resilience to climate change, and strengthening the health and
vitality of farm soil. Practices include recycling as much farm waste as
possible and adding
composted material from sources outside the farm.
Regenerative agriculture on small farms and gardens is often based on
philosophies like
permaculture, agroecology, agroforestry, restoration
ecology, keyline design, and holistic management. Large farms tend to be
less philosophy driven and often use "
no-till" and/or "reduced till"
practices. On a regenerative farm, yield should increase over time. As
the topsoil deepens, production may increase and fewer external compost
inputs are required. Actual output is dependent on the nutritional value
of the composting materials and the structure and content of the soil.
Principles include: Increase
soil fertility. Work with whole systems
(holistically), not isolated parts, to make changes to specific parts.
Improve whole agro-ecosystems (soil, water, and biodiversity). Connect the
farm to its larger agro-ecosystem and region. Make holistic decisions that
express the value of farm contributors. Each person and farm is
significant. Make sure all stakeholders have equitable and reciprocal
relationships. Payment can be financial, spiritual, social, or
environmental capital ("multi-capital"). Relationships can be "non-linear"
(not reciprocal): if you do not get paid, in the future you can be given
other "capital" by unrelated parties. Continually grow and evolve
individuals, farms, and communities. Continuously evolve the agro-ecology.
Agriculture influences the world.
Smart soil can water and feed itself. A newly engineered type of soil
can capture water out of thin air to keep plants hydrated and manage
controlled release of fertilizer for a constant supply of nutrients.
Underpinning this exciting smart soil system is a hydrogel material
developed by researchers at The University of Texas at Austin. In
experiments, the hydrogel-infused soil led to the growth of larger,
healthier plants, compared to regular soil, all while using less water and
fertilizer.
Soil Types
Soil
Type is a taxonomic unit in soil science. All soils that share a
certain set of well-defined properties form a distinctive soil type. Soil
type is a technical term of soil classification, the science that deals
with the systematic categorization of soils. Every soil of the world
belongs to a certain soil type. Soil type is an abstract term. In nature,
you will not find soil types. You will find soils that belong to a certain
soil type.
Soil
Taxonomy is the classification of soil types according to
several parameters.
Global Soil Biodiversity
-
RSP.
Soil Classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils
based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate
choices in use.
Loam or
top soil, is typically a rich, dark soil
that has a loose breakable texture. Loam soil has a good balance of sand,
silt, clay, and organic matter and is able to retain water while still
allowing drainage. Most plants will have an easier time growing in loam
than any other type of soil.
Loam is
soil that is not predominantly sand, silt, or
clay.
Loam soils generally contain more nutrients, moisture, and humus than
sandy soils, and have better drainage and infiltration of water and air
than silt- and clay-rich soils, and are easier to till than clay soils. In
fact, the primary definition of loam in most dictionaries is soils
containing humus or organic content, and this definition is used by many
gardeners. The different types of loam soils each have slightly different
characteristics, with some draining liquids more efficiently than others.
The soil's texture, especially its ability to retain nutrients and water,
are crucial. Loam soil is suitable for growing most plant varieties. Loam
is composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 micrometres (0.0025 in)),
silt (particle size > 2 micrometres (7.9×10−5 in)), and a smaller amount
of clay (particle size < 2 micrometres (7.9×10−5 in)). By weight, its
mineral composition is about 40–40–20% concentration of sand–silt–clay,
respectively. These proportions can vary to a degree, however, and result
in different types of loam soils: sandy loam, silty loam, clay loam, sandy
clay loam or silty
clay loam.
Topsoil
is the upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top 2 inches (5.1 cm)
to 8 inches (20 cm). It has the highest concentration of organic matter
and
microorganisms and
is where most of the Earth's
biological soil activity occurs. Four
elements constitute the
composition of soil. Those elements are mineral
particles, organic matter, water, and air. The volume of top soil consists
of 50 to 80 percent of these particles which form the skeletal structure
of most soils. This composition allows the soil to sustain its own weight,
and other internal matter such as
water and overlying landscape. Organic
matter, another important element, varies on quantity on different soils.
This provokes positive and negative effects or reactions on the soil. The
strength of soil structure decreases with the presence of
organic matter,
creating weak bearing capacities. Organic matter condenses and settles in
different ways under certain conditions, such as roadbeds and foundations.
The skeletal structure becomes affected once the soil is dewatered. The
soil's volume substantially decreases. It decomposes and suffers wind
erosion.
Subsoil
is the layer of soil under the topsoil on the surface of the ground. Like
topsoil it is composed of a variable mixture of small particles such as
sand, silt and/or clay, but it lacks the organic matter and humus content
of topsoil. Below the subsoil is the substratum, which can be residual
bedrock, sediments, or aeolian deposits. As it is lacking in dark humus,
subsoil is usually paler in colour than the overlying topsoil. It may
contain the deeper roots of some plants, such as trees, but a majority of
plant roots lie within the surface topsoil. Clay-based subsoil has been
the primary source of material for adobe, cob, rammed earth, wattle and
daub, and other
earthen
construction methods for millennia.
Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or
soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal
oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of
phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in
the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to that water content and
become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying or firing. Depending on
the soil's content in which it is found, clay can appear in various
colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red.
Clay is typically heavy with very small particles. It compacts
easily and is silky when dry. Clay soil retains water, but plants can have
a harder time growing roots in clay due to its tight structure. Adding
organic matter to the soil can help improve the soil and make it easier
for plants to grow.
Clay Loam is
less heavy than pure clay and has small but slightly larger particles.
There is more organic matter present in clay loam soil than in clay. It
still compacts easily and is silky when dry. Clay loam soil retains water
but plants may struggle growing roots due to its tight structure.
Kisameet Clay.
Claypan
is a dense, compact, slowly permeable layer in the subsoil having a much
higher clay content than the overlying material, from which it is
separated by a sharply defined boundary. Claypans are usually hard when
dry, and plastic and sticky when wet. They limit or slow the downward
movement of water through the soil.
Chaco Clay is an eatable medicinal clay in the Peruvian highlands used
as slurry with water to restrain dyspeptic discomfort or acid-peptic
manifestations and other digestive problems.
Separation of patatins and protease inhibitors from potato fruit juice
with clay minerals as cation exchangers.
Soil Compaction
is when soil becomes dense and hard.
Tilling.
Compaction in geology refers to the process by which a sediment
progressively loses its
porosity
due to the effects of loading. This forms part of the process of
lithification, which is the process in which sediments compact under
pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock.
Essentially, lithification is a process of porosity destruction through
compaction and
cementation. Lithification includes all the processes which
convert unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rocks. Petrifaction,
though often used as a synonym, is more specifically used to describe the
replacement of organic material by silica in the formation of fossils.
Hardpan
is a
dense layer of soil, usually found
below the uppermost topsoil layer. There are different types of hardpan,
all sharing the general characteristic of being a distinct soil layer that
is largely
impervious to water. Some
hardpans are formed by deposits in the soil that fuse and bind the soil
particles. These deposits can range from dissolved silica to matrices
formed from iron oxides and calcium carbonate. Others are man-made, such
as hardpan formed by
compaction from
repeated plowing, particularly with moldboard plows, or by heavy
traffic or pollution.
How Crop Roots penetrate Hard Soils. Scientists have discovered a
signal that causes roots to stop growing in hard soils which can be
'switched off' to allow them to punch through compacted soil -- a
discovery that could help plants to grow in even the most damaged soils.
Sand
is a naturally occurring
granular material composed of
finely divided rock
and
mineral particles. It is defined by
size, being finer than gravel and
coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of
Soil or soil
type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles by mass.
The composition of sand varies, depending on the local
rock sources and
conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental
settings and non-tropical coastal settings is
Silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of
Quartz. The second most common type of sand
is
Calcium Carbonate, for example aragonite, which has mostly been
created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like
coral and shellfish. For example, it is the primary form of sand apparent
in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years
like the Caribbean.
Sand is a non-renewable
resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making
concrete is in high demand. The best sand for
Cement is river sand. Beach sand
or sand from the desert is not good for cement.
Particulate Matter.
Sandy Loam soil is less crumbly and
coarse than pure sand, it has some smaller particles and more organic
matter. Sandy loam can still be gritty to the touch but when moistened
will form into a ball. Plants in sandy loam will need more frequent
watering, as sandy loam does not retain water and nutrients for long
Sandy Soil is typically loose with
large particles. Sand is gritty to the touch and even when moistened will
not form into a ball without crumbling. Plants have a harder time growing
in sand because water and nutrients are not retained long enough for
plants to absorb. Adding organic matter to the soil can help improve the
soil and make it easier for plants to grow.
Rock -
Gravel
Pebble
is a clast of rock with a particle size of 4–64 mm (0.16–2.52 in) based on
the Udden-Wentworth scale of sedimentology. Pebbles are generally
considered larger than granules (2–4 mm (0.079–0.157 in) in diameter) and
smaller than cobbles (64–256 mm (2.5–10.1 in) in diameter). A rock made
predominantly of pebbles is termed a conglomerate. Pebble tools are among
the earliest known man-made artifacts, dating from the Palaeolithic period
of human history.
Granular is resembling or consisting of
small grains or particles. But bigger than the
particles in physics.
Grain is a relatively small granular
particle of a substance. (Grains of Sand) -
Size Scales.
Granularity the condition of existing in grains or granules, refers to
the extent to which a material or system is composed of distinguishable
pieces or grains. It can either refer to the extent to which a larger
entity is subdivided, or the extent to which groups of smaller
indistinguishable entities have joined together to become larger
distinguishable entities. A kilometer broken into centimeters has finer
granularity than a kilometer broken into meters; whereas, by contrast,
molecules of photographic emulsion may clump together to form distinct
noticeable granules, reflecting coarser granularity.
Granular Material is a conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic
particles characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles
interact (the most common example would be friction when grains collide).
The constituents that compose granular material must be large enough such
that they are not subject to thermal motion fluctuations. Thus, the lower
size limit for grains in granular material is about 1 µm. On the upper
size limit, the physics of granular materials may be applied to ice floes
where the individual grains are icebergs and to asteroid belts of the
Solar System with individual grains being asteroids. Some examples of
granular materials are snow, nuts, coal, sand, rice, coffee, corn flakes,
fertilizer, and bearing balls. Powders are a special class of granular
material due to their small particle size, which makes them more cohesive
and more easily suspended in a gas. Granular materials are commercially
important in applications as diverse as pharmaceutical industry,
agriculture, and energy production. Research into granular materials is
thus directly applicable and goes back at least to Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb, whose law of friction was originally stated for granular
materials.
Silt Granular is less than < 0.05 mm in size.
Sand
Granular is from 0.05 mm to 2.00 mm in size.
Gravel
Piece is bigger
than 2.00 mm in size.
Quicksand is a
colloid
hydrogel consisting of fine granular material (such as sand, silt or
clay), and water. Quicksand forms in saturated loose sand when the sand is
suddenly agitated. When water in the sand cannot escape, it creates a
liquefied soil that loses strength and cannot support weight. Quicksand
can form in standing water or in upwards flowing water (as from an
artesian spring). In the case of upwards flowing water, seepage forces
oppose the force of gravity and suspend the soil particles. The saturated
sediment may appear quite solid until a sudden change in pressure or shock
initiates liquefaction. This causes the sand to form a suspension and lose
strength. The cushioning of water gives quicksand, and other liquefied
sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture. Objects in liquefied sand sink to
the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the
displaced soil/water mix and the submerged object floats due to its
buoyancy. Liquefaction is a special case of quicksand. In this case,
sudden earthquake forces immediately increase the pore pressure of shallow
groundwater. The saturated liquefied soil loses strength, causing
buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall.
Liquid
Earth (youtube).
Science of Sandcastles tries to explain why
capillary condensation, a fundamentally
microscopic phenomenon involving a few molecular layers of water, can be
described reasonably well using macroscopic equations and macroscopic
characteristics of bulk water.
Humus
refers to the fraction of soil organic matter that is amorphous and
without the "cellular cake structure characteristic of plants,
micro-organisms or animals." Humus significantly influences the bulk
density of soil and contributes to moisture and nutrient retention. Soil
formation begins with the weathering of humus. In agriculture, humus is
sometimes also used to describe mature, or natural compost extracted from
a forest or other spontaneous source for use to amend soil. It is also
used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic matter (humus
type, humus form, humus profile). Humus is the dark organic matter that
forms in the soil when plant and animal matter decays. Humus contains many
useful nutrients for healthy soil, nitrogen being the most important of
all.
Muck
is a soil made up primarily of
humus
from drained
swampland. It is known as black soil in The
Fens
of eastern England, where it was originally mainly
fen and
Bog.
Soil Organic Matter is the organic matter component of soil,
consisting of plant and animal residues at various stages of
decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, and substances
synthesized by soil organisms. SOM exerts numerous positive effects on
soil physical and chemical properties, as well as the soil’s capacity to
provide regulatory
ecosystem
services. Particularly, the presence of SOM is regarded as being
critical for soil function and soil quality.
Geophagia
is the practice of eating earth or soil-like substrates such as
clay or
chalk.
Can you Eat Dirt? (Mud Pie).
Iodine in desert dust destroys ozone. New study shows iodine from
desert dust can decrease ozone air
pollution but could prolong greenhouse gas lifetimes. When winds loft fine
desert dust high into the atmosphere, iodine in that dust can trigger
chemical reactions that destroy some air pollution, but also let
greenhouse gases stick around longer. The finding may force researchers to
re-evaluate how particles from land can impact the chemistry of the
atmosphere.
Sediment is
a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of
weathering and
erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of
wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the
particles. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in
river water and on reaching the sea be deposited by sedimentation and if
buried this may eventually become sandstone and siltstone, ( sedimentary
rocks).
Silt is
granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is
quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or
clay) or as sediment mixed in suspension with water
(also known as a suspended load) and soil in a body of water such as a
river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body,
like mudflows from landslides. Silt has a moderate specific area with a
typically non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually has a floury feel when
dry, and a slippery feel when wet. Silt can be visually observed with a
hand lens, exhibiting a sparkly appearance. It also can be felt by the
tongue as granular when placed on the front teeth (even when mixed with
clay particles).
Biological
Soil Crust are communities of living organisms on the soil surface in
arid and
semi-arid ecosystems. They are
found throughout the world with varying species composition and cover
depending on topography, soil characteristics, climate, plant community,
microhabitats, and disturbance regimes. Biological soil crusts perform
important ecological roles including carbon fixation, nitrogen fixation,
soil stabilization, alter soil albedo and water relations, and affect
germination and nutrient levels in vascular plants. They can be damaged by
fire, recreational activity, grazing, and other disturbance and can
require long time periods to recover composition and function. Biological
soil crusts are also known as cryptogamic, microbiotic, microphytic, or
cryptobiotic soils.
Real World Native Biocrusts: Microbial Metabolism. Arid lands, which
cover some 40 percent of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, are too dry to
sustain much in the way of vegetation. But far from being barren, they are
home to diverse communities of microorganisms—including fungi,
bacteria, and archaea—that dwell together within the uppermost millimeters
of soil. These biological soil crusts, or biocrusts, can exist for
extended periods in a desiccated, dormant state. When it does rain, the
microbes become metabolically active, setting in motion a cascade of
activity that dramatically alters both the community structure and the
soil chemistry.
Environment -
Geology
-
Chemistry -
BiologyOn average,
70 percent of all land has degraded soil, according to the Natural
Resources Conservation Service. In an overview on land degradation
productivity of some lands has declined by 50% due to
soil erosion and desertification. In Africa,
poor soil may have caused yield reductions of as much as 40 percent.
Globally, loss caused by degradation “costs the world about $400 billion
per year,” according to the NRCS.
Soil Testing
Soil Test is a wide variety of soil
analyses conducted for
one of several possible reasons. Possibly the most widely conducted soil
tests are those done to estimate the plant-available concentrations of
plant nutrients, in order to determine
fertilizer recommendations in
agriculture. Other soil tests may be done for engineering (geotechnical),
geochemical or ecological investigations.
Soil
Health -
Micronutrient Deficiency.
Soil Testing Kits (farmtek) -
Soil Testing Kits (amazon
)
Soil Quality Test (usda) -
DIY How to
Soil Testing (youtube)
How to
Collect a Soil Sample for Analysis (youtube)
Collecting
Soil Samples Part 1: Tools (youtube)
New Microbial Research Technique to isolate Active Microbes present in a
sample of soil.
Bioorthogonal Noncanonical Amino Acid Tagging enables Time-Resolved
Analysis of Protein Synthesis in Native Plant Tissue.
Why
Plant Tissue Analysis? Analysis of plant tissues is an extremely
useful tool for growers. Not only can plant tissue testing be used to
monitor the nutrient status of plants but it can help
identify nutrient
deficiencies and imbalances. This allows growers to more effectively
tailor their nutrient management programs to meet a crop's specific needs.
Cost savings may be realized if nutrient deficiencies are resolved before
they adversely affect production and also if unnecessary fertilizer
applications are avoided.
Why Not Just Test the
Soil? Soil testing is also a valuable tool and is often used in
conjunction with tissue testing. Soil tests should be taken before
planting and at regular intervals once plants are established.
The soil pH
is of special importance because it affects the availability of all plant
nutrients. There is often not a strong relationship between the nutrient
levels in soil and in plant tissue. This is because many factors affect
the ability of plants to take up nutrients. Tissue testing is the best way
to find out the nutritional composition of plants.
In What Circumstances Would Plant Tissue Analysis Be Suggested?
Routine Assessment � Leaf and/or petiole samples are collected at the
appropriate time of year and sent in every 2 to 3 years to monitor
nutrient levels in plants and fertility program. Trouble Shooting. If
observing leaf symptoms that may indicate a nutritional problem, samples
are sent in from plants showing symptoms and also those without for a
comparison.
Plant Analysis.
Microbiology -
Cover Crops -
Nitrogen
Fixing -
Carbon
Soil
Acidification is the buildup of hydrogen cations, also called protons,
reducing the soil pH. This happens when a proton donor gets added to the
soil. The donor can be an
acid, such as nitric acid and sulfuric acid
(these acids are common components of acid rain). It can also be a
compound such as aluminium sulfate, which reacts in the soil to release
protons. Many nitrogen compounds, which are added as fertilizer, also
acidify soil over the long term because they produce nitrous and nitric
acid when oxidized in the process of nitrification.
Soil
Salinity (salt).
Soil pH is
a measure of the
acidity or
alkalinity in soils. pH is defined as the
negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity of hydronium ions (H+ or,
more precisely, H3O+aq) in a solution. In water, it normally ranges from
-1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is
alkaline. Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it controls
many chemical processes that take place. It specifically affects plant
nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the nutrient.
The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0, however many
plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range. Acid soils can be
limed to alter the acidity, but the practice is costly and must be
done annually.
PH Balance
(from
potential of Hydrogen)
the logarithm of the reciprocal of
hydrogen-ion concentration in gram
atoms per liter; provides a measure on a scale from 0 to 14 of the acidity
or alkalinity of a solution (where 7 is neutral and greater than 7 is more
basic and less than 7 is more acidic).
Limestone -
Chalk -
Calcium Carbonate -
Salt
Crop-Saving Soil Tests now at Farmers' Fingertips. On-site pathogen
analysis is accurate, quick and inexpensive.
Biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of an
analyte, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical
detector.
Sensors.
Gas sensors ‘see’ through soil to analyze microbial interactions
How Soil Bacteria are primed to consume Greenhouse Gasnitrous Oxide
when they experience life without oxygen in the environment.
Core Samples - Drilling Sediment or Rock
Core
Sample is a cylindrical section of a naturally occurring
substance. Most core samples are obtained by
drilling with special drills
into the substance, for example
sediment
or
rock, with a hollow steel tube
called a core drill. The hole made for the core sample is called the "
core
bowling". A variety of core samplers exist to sample different media under
different conditions. More continue to be invented on a regular basis. In
the coring process, the sample is pushed more or less intact into the
tube. Removed from the tube in the laboratory, it is inspected and
analyzed by different techniques and equipment depending on the type of
data desired. Core samples can be taken to test the properties of manmade
materials, such as concrete, ceramics, some metals and alloys, especially
the softer ones. Core samples can also be taken of living things,
including human beings, especially of a person's bones for microscopic
examination to help diagnose diseases.
Ice Core is a core
sample that is typically removed from an
ice
sheet or a high mountain glacier.
Warming.
Geological Dating Techniques
Soil Boring is a technique used to survey
soil by taking several shallow cores out of the sediment. It is done by
supporting a drilling jacket or jack-up rig on the soil and drilling into
that soil. Conventional soil boring is used to determine the subsurface
soil profile and static soil properties.
Sink Holes.
Index to
Marine and Lacustrine Geological Samples is a tool to help scientists
locate and obtain geologic material from sea floor and lakebed cores,
grabs, and dredges archived by participating institutions around the
world. Sample material is available directly from each repository. Before
proposing research on any sample, please contact the curator for sample
condition and availability.
The Marine Geology
Repository at Oregon State University is a NSF supported
curation facility
for marine rock and sediment samples. Containing over 41,000 cubic feet of
refrigerated space and 1,100 cft of -25ºC cold storage it is well equipped
for preservation and distribution of marine geological samples for
scientific research and education. Our mission is to facilitate research,
education, and the advancement of scientific knowledge through access and
use of our diverse collection of rock, lake, and marine sediment samples.
Sediment cores from ocean floor could contain 23-million-year-old climate
change clues. Sediment cores taken from the Southern Ocean dating back
23 million years are providing insight into how
ancient methane escaping
from the seafloor could have led to regional or global climate and
environmental changes, according to a new study.
The Lamont-Doherty Core Repository curates and archives a diverse
collection of deep sea cores, coral cores, marine dredge samples,
terrestrial cores from lakes and wetlands, as well as a number of special
collections such as the CLIMAP samples, Prof. Jim Hayes' radiolarian
collection, and a collection of cores that have been vacuum-sealed since they were first collected.
Hyper-Accumulators - Contaminated Soils - Phytomining
Soil Contamination is caused by the presence of xenobiotic
(human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural
chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and
other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.
Contamination is the presence of an unwanted constituent,
contaminant or impurity in a material, physical body, natural environment,
workplace, etc.
Contaminates (EPA) -
Soil Depletion -
Fortification -
Testing Soil
Soil Retrogression and Degradation is the loss of equilibrium of a
Stable Soil. Retrogression is primarily due to
soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the
land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different
from natural evolution, related to the local climate and vegetation. It is
due to the replacement of primary plant communities (known as climax
vegetation) by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the
humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil. It is
directly related to human activity. Soil degradation may also be viewed as
any change or ecological disturbance to the soil perceived to be
deleterious or undesirable.
Environmental Remediation deals with the removal of
pollution or
contaminants from environmental media such as soil,
groundwater, sediment, or surface water. This would mean that once
requested by the government or a land remediation authority, immediate
action should be taken as this can impact negatively on human health and
the environment.
Remediation is an
act of correcting an error or fixing a fault or an evil.
Chelation Therapy
(cleansing) - Bonds
Nanoremediation is the use of
nanoparticles for
environmental remediation.
It is being explored to treat ground water, wastewater, soil, sediment, or
other contaminated environmental materials.
Nano
Technology -
Freshwater
Mussels.
Speedy
Nano-Robots could someday clean up soil and water, deliver drugs.
Researchers have discovered that minuscule, self-propelled particles
called 'nanoswimmers' can escape from mazes as much as 20 times faster
than other, passive particles, paving the way for their use in everything
from industrial clean-ups to medication delivery.
Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances,
such as
pesticides, or other
chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation
occurs when an organism absorbs a - possibly toxic - substance at a rate
faster than that at which the substance is lost by catabolism and
excretion. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance
the greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of
the toxin are not very high. Bioaccumulation, for example in fish, can be
predicted by models. Hypotheses for molecular size cutoff criteria for use
as bioaccumulation potential indicators are not supported by data.
Biotransformation can strongly modify bioaccumulation of chemicals in an
organism.
Biodegradable.
Biosorption is a physiochemical process that occurs naturally in
certain biomass which allows it to passively concentrate and bind
contaminants onto its cellular structure. Biosorption can be defined as
the ability of biological materials to
accumulate heavy metals
from wastewater through metabolically mediated or physico-chemical
pathways of uptake. Though using biomass in environmental cleanup has been
in practice for a while, scientists and engineers are hoping this
phenomenon will provide an economical alternative for removing toxic heavy
metals from industrial wastewater and aid in environmental remediation.
Bioleaching is the extraction of metals from their ores through the
use of living organisms. This is much cleaner than the traditional heap
leaching using cyanide. Bioleaching is one of several applications within
biohydrometallurgy and several methods are used to recover copper, zinc,
lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt.
Lettuce show you how to restore oil-soaked soil. Study fine-tunes
pyrolysis technique to make soil fertile again.
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated
temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves the change of chemical
composition and is irreversible.
Bio-Char.
Floating
Wetlands (water cleaners)
Probiotics help Poplar Trees clean up Contaminated Groundwater
Biology -
Hemp Plants (biomass) -
Environment
(botany)
Hyperaccumulator is a plant capable of growing in soils with
very high concentrations of metals, absorbing these metals through their
roots, and concentrating extremely high levels of metals in their tissues.
The metals are concentrated at levels that are toxic to closely related
species not adapted to growing on the metalliferous soils. Compared to
non-hyperaccumulating species, hyperaccumulator roots extract the metal
from the soil at a higher rate, transfer it more quickly to their shoots,
and store large amounts in leaves and roots. The ability to
hyperaccumulate toxic metals compared to related species has been shown to
be due to differential gene expression and regulation of the same genes in
both plants. Over 500 species of flowering plants have been identified as
having the ability to hyperaccumulate metals in their tissues.
Hyperaccumulating plants hold interest for their ability to extract metals
from the soils of contaminated sites (phytoremediation) to return the
ecosystem to a less toxic state. The plants also hold potential to be used
to mine metals from soils with very high concentrations (phytomining) by
growing the plants then harvesting them for the metals in their tissues.
The genetic advantage of hyperaccumulation of metals may be that the toxic
levels of heavy metals in leaves deter herbivores or increase the toxicity
of other anti-herbivory metabolite.
Phytoremediation of heavy metal polluted soils and water:
Progresses and perspectives.
A Review on Heavy Metals (As, Pb, and Hg) Uptake by Plants
through Phytoremediation.
How a common fungus eliminates toxic mercury from soil and water.
Researchers found that the fungus
Metarhizium robertsii removes mercury from the soil around plant
roots, and from fresh and saltwater. The researchers also genetically
engineered the
fungus to amplify its mercury
detoxifying effects. This new work suggests Metarhizium could provide an
inexpensive and efficient way to protect crops grown in polluted areas and
remediate mercury-laden waterways.
Using plants to clean contaminated soil -
Aeroponincs.
Phytoremediation technologies use living plants to clean up soil, air,
and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants. It is defined as "the
use of green plants and the associated microorganisms, along with proper
soil amendments and agronomic techniques to either contain, remove or
render toxic environmental contaminants harmless". The term is an amalgam
of the Greek phyto (plant) and Latin remedium (restoring balance).
Although attractive for its cost, phytoremediation has not been
demonstrated to redress any significant environmental challenge to the
extent that contaminated space has been reclaimed. Phytoremediation means
"restoring balance". Phytoremediation is proposed as a cost-effective
plant-based approach of environmental remediation that takes advantage of
the ability of plants to concentrate elements and compounds from the
environment and to detoxify various compounds. The concentrating effect
results from the ability of certain plants called hyperaccumulators to
bioaccumulate chemicals. The remediation effect is quite different. Toxic
heavy metals cannot be degraded, but organic pollutants can be and are
generally the major targets for phytoremediation. Several field trials
confirmed the feasibility of using plants for environmental cleanup.
Alyssum Murale is a Nickel Hyperaccumulator.
Phytoextraction uses plants or algae to remove contaminants from soil
or water into harvestable plant biomass. The roots take up substances from
the soil or water and concentrate it above ground in the plant biomass
Organisms that can uptake extremely high amounts of contaminants from the
soil are called hyperaccumulators. Phytoextraction can also be performed
by plants (e.g. Populus and Salix) that take up lower levels of
pollutants, but due to their high growth rate and biomass production, may
remove a considerable amount of contaminants from the soil.
Phytoextraction has been growing rapidly in popularity worldwide for the
last twenty years or so. Typically, phytoextraction is used for heavy
metals or other inorganics. At the time of disposal, contaminants are
typically concentrated in the much smaller volume of the plant matter than
in the initially contaminated soil or sediment. After harvest, a lower
level of the contaminant will remain in the soil, so the growth/harvest
cycle must usually be repeated through several crops to achieve a
significant cleanup. After the process, the cleaned soil can support other
vegetation. Mining of these extracted metals through phytomining, is also
being experimented with as a way of recovering the material.
Hyperaccumulators are plants that can naturally take up the contaminants
in soil unassisted. In many cases these are metallophyte plants that can
tolerate and incorporate high levels of toxic metals. Induced or assisted
phytoextraction is a process where a conditioning fluid containing a
chelator or another agent is added to soil to increase metal solubility or
mobilization so that the plants can absorb them more easily. While this
leads to increased metal uptake by plants, it can also lead to large
amounts of available metals in the soil beyond what the plants are able to
translocate, causing potential leaching into the subsoil or groundwater.
New Phytologist offers rapid publication of high quality, original
research in plant science. Falling within four sections – Physiology &
Development, Environment, Interaction and Evolution – articles cover
topics that range from intracellular processes through to global
environmental change.
New
Phytologist Foundation is an independent, not-for-profit organization
dedicated to the promotion of plant science. It owns and produces the
international journals New Phytologist and Plants, People, Planet.
Phytomining is the production of a `crop' of a metal by growing
high-biomass plants that accumulate high metal concentrations. Some of
these plants are natural hyperaccumulators, and in others the property can
be induced. Pioneering experiments in this field might lead to a `green'
alternative to existing, environmentally destructive, opencast
mining practices.
Phytomining for a range of metals is a real possibility, with the
additional potential of the exploitation of ore bodies that it is
uneconomic to mine by conventional methods.
Phytomining -
Mining With Trees - Could Save Our Planet (youtube)
Phytomining of Gold involves extracting gold from soil substrates by
harvesting specially selected hyperaccumulating plants. Phytomining has
potential to allow economic exploitation of low grade ores or mineralized
soils that are too poor for conventional mining of metals. Gold is the
most promising option for phytomining as its market value is increasing
continuously.
Carcinogen (cancer) -
Pesticides -
Toxins
Lead Poisoning
-
Arsenic Poisoning
Water Contamination -
Pollution
Caesium is a chemical element with symbol Cs and atomic
number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold (or, according to some,
silver/colorless) alkali metal with a melting point of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F),
which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or
near room temperature. Caesium is an alkali metal and has physical
and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The
metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric, reacting with water even at
−116 °C (−177 °F). Some argue that caesium is the most reactive element of
all, even more reactive than fluorine, the most reactive nonmetal. It is
the least electronegative element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling
scale. It has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined
mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially
Caesium-137, a
fission product, are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors.
Cesium Tolerance.
Anthropocene is a proposed epoch that begins when human
activities started to have a significant global impact on Earth's geology
and ecosystems.
Anthropocene is a proposed epoch dating from the commencement of
significant human impact on the Earth's geology and ecosystems. The
Anthropocence thus includes, but also transcends, the duration of
anthropogenic climate change.
Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological
processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased
rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation,
sustainable forest management, and genetic engineering. Methods and
practices exist to enhance soil carbon sequestration in both sectors of
agriculture and forestry. Additionally, in the context of industrial
energy production, strategies such as Bio-energy with
Carbon Capture and
Storage to absorb carbon dioxide emissions from coal, petroleum, or
natural gas-fired electricity generation can utilize an alternative of
algal bio sequestration (see algae bioreactor). Biosequestration as a
natural process has occurred in the past, and was responsible for the
formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being
burned. It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation
debate. It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide
in oceans (see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification) or rock
formations (see geological sequestration), depleted oil or gas reservoirs
(see oil depletion and peak oil), deep saline aquifers, or deep coal seams
(see coal mining) (for all see geosequestration) or through the use of
industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing.
Carbon Sink.
Geobacter is
a genus of Proteobacteria. Geobacter species are anaerobic respiration
bacterial species which have capabilities that make them useful in
bioremediation. Geobacter was found to be the first organism with the
ability to oxidize organic compounds and metals, including iron,
radioactive metals, and petroleum compounds into environmentally benign
carbon dioxide while using iron oxide or other available metals as
electron acceptors. Geobacter species are also found to be able to respire
upon a graphite electrode. They have been found in anaerobic conditions in
soils and aquatic sediment. Geobacter's ability to consume oil-based
pollutants and radioactive material with carbon dioxide as waste byproduct
has been used in
environmental clean-up for
underground petroleum spills and for the precipitation of uranium out of
groundwater. Geobacter degrade the material by creating electrically
conductive pili between itself and the pollutant material, using it as an
electron source. Microbial biodegradation of recalcitrant organic
pollutants is of great environmental significance and involves intriguing
novel biochemical reactions. In particular, hydrocarbons and halogenated
compounds have long been doubted to be anaerobically degradable, but the
isolation of hitherto unknown anaerobic hydrocarbon-degrading and
reductively dehalogenating bacteria documented these processes in nature.
Novel biochemical reactions were discovered, enabling the respective
metabolic pathways, but progress in the molecular understanding of these
bacteria was slowed by the absence of genetic systems for most of them.
However, several complete genome sequences later became available for such
bacteria. The genome of the hydrocarbon degrading and iron-reducing
species G. metallireducens (accession nr. NC_007517) was determined in
2008. The genome revealed the presence of genes for reductive
dehalogenases, suggesting a wide dehalogenating spectrum. Moreover, genome
sequences provided insights into the evolution of reductive dehalogenation
and differing strategies for niche adaptation. Geobacter species are often
the predominant organisms when extracellular electron transfer is an
important bioremediation process in subsurface environments. Therefore, a
systems biology approach to understanding and optimizing bioremediation
with Geobacter species has been initiated with the ultimate goal of
developing in silico models that can predict the growth and metabolism of
Geobacter species under a diversity of subsurface conditions. The genomes
of multiple Geobacter species have been sequenced. Detailed functional
genomic/physiological studies on one species, G. sulfurreducens was
conducted. Genome-based models of several Geobacter species that are able
to predict physiological responses under different environmental
conditions are available. Quantitative analysis of gene transcript levels
during in situ uranium bioremediation demonstrated that it is possible to
track in situ rates of metabolism and the in situ metabolic state of
Geobacter in the subsurface. Geobacter has become an icon for teaching
about microbial electrogenesis and
microbial fuel cells and has appeared in educational kits that are
available for students and hobbyists.
Microbes in Soil
Soil Microbiology is the study of
organisms in soil and their
functions and how they affect soil properties. It is believed that
between
two and four billion years ago, the first ancient bacteria and
microorganisms came about in Earth's oceans. These bacteria could fix
nitrogen, in time multiplied and as a result released oxygen into the
atmosphere. This led to more advanced
microorganisms. Microorganisms in
soil are important because they affect soil structure and fertility. Soil
microorganisms can be classified as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae
and protozoa. Each of these groups has characteristics that define them
and their functions in soil. Up to 10 billion bacterial cells inhabit each
gram of soil in and around plant roots, a region known as the rhizosphere.
In 2011, a team detected more than 33,000 bacterial and archaeal species
on sugar beet roots. The composition of the rhizobiome can change rapidly
in response to changes in the surrounding environment.
Cover Crops.
Microbial Ecology is the ecology of microorganisms: their
relationship with one another and with their environment. It concerns the
three major domains of life—Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria—as well as
viruses.
Soil Testing.
Soil
Food Web is the community of organisms living all or part of their
lives in the soil. It describes a complex living system in the soil and
how it interacts with the environment, plants, and animals.
Soil microbes play a key role in plant disease resistance.
Microorganisms Increase Crop Yields -
Microbes Improve Crop Productivity.
Biological Soil Crusts or biocrusts are a complex community of algae,
cyanobacteria, lichens, bryophytes, and assorted bacteria, fungi, archaea,
and bacteriophages that colonize the soil surface. Biocrusts are
particularly common in drylands and are found in arid and semiarid
ecosystems worldwide. Biological soil crusts are communities of living
organisms on the soil surface in arid and semi-arid ecosystems.
In soil, high microbial fluctuation leads to more carbon emissions.
Modeling shows fluctuating soil microbial populations impact how much
carbon is released
from soil.
Microbiologist is a
biological
scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes or works in
the field of microbiology. Microbiologists investigate the growth,
interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as
bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors.
Livestock antibiotics and rising temperatures disrupt soil microbial
communities. Combined stressors could impair soils’ ability to cycle
nutrients and trap carbon. Community ecologists investigated the
interactive effects of rising temperatures and a common livestock
antibiotic on soil microbes. The research team found that heat and
antibiotics disrupt soil microbial communities -- degrading soil microbe
efficiency, resilience to future stress, and ability to trap carbon.
Soil microbiota can boost the growth of invasive plant species and
provide defense against herbivores. Soil microbes can have a great impact
on the spread of harmful invasive species as they can either hinder or
facilitate the plant's growth. Researchers studied the role of soil
microbiota in the success of garden lupine, which is an invasive species
in the Finnish nature.
Earth's living skin soil microbiome is under threat from climate change.
Using a novel method to detect microbial activity in biological soil
crusts, or biocrusts, after they are wetted, a research team in a new
study uncovered clues that will lead to a better understanding of the role
microbes play in forming a living skin over many semi-arid ecosystems
around the world. The tiny organisms -- and the microbiomes they create --
are threatened by climate change. To determine which microorganisms are
active within soil communities, the researchers coupled
bioorthogonal non-canonical amino acid tagging -- known as BONCAT --
with fluorescence-activated cell sorting. BONCAT is a powerful tool for
tracking protein synthesis on the level of single cells within communities
and whole organisms, while fluorescence-activated cell sorting sorts cells
based on whether they are producing new proteins.
Mushrooms
Mushroom is
the fleshy,
spore-bearing fruiting body of a
fungus, typically produced
above ground on soil or on its food source.
Fruiting body or sporocarp is a multicellular structure on which
spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are born. The
fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cycle, while the
rest of the life cycle is characterized by vegetative mycelial growth and
asexual spore production.
800 Million Years Ago.
Fungus
is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes
microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar
mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, which is separate
from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals.
Fauna -
Flora.
MycoGrow Mycorrhizal Fungi
Mycoremediation a form of
bioremediation, is the process of
using
fungi to degrade or sequester contaminants in the environment.
Stimulating microbial and enzyme activity, mycelium reduces toxins
in-situ. Some
fungi are hyperaccumulators, capable of absorbing and
concentrating heavy metals in the mushroom fruit bodies. This does not
destroy the heavy metals.
Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or
fungus-like
bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae.
The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy
ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil
and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a
homokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two
compatible homokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that
mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be
minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extensive:
Is this the largest organism in the world? This 2,400-acre [970-hectare]
site in eastern Oregon had a contiguous growth of mycelium before logging
roads cut through it. Estimated at 1,665 football fields in size and 2,200
years old, this one fungus has killed the forest above it several times
over, and in so doing has built deeper soil layers that allow the growth
of ever-larger stands of trees. Mushroom-forming forest fungi are unique
in that their mycelial mats can achieve such massive proportions.
Mushrooms (photos - info)
Ecotoxicology is the study of the effects of toxic chemicals
on biological organisms, especially at the population, community,
ecosystem, and biosphere levels. Ecotoxicology is a multidisciplinary
field, which integrates toxicology and ecology. The ultimate goal of this
approach is to be able to predict the effects of pollution so that the
most efficient and effective action to prevent or remediate any
detrimental effect can be identified. In those ecosystems that are already
impacted by pollution ecotoxicological studies can inform as to the best
course of action to restore ecosystem services and functions efficiently
and effectively. Ecotoxicology differs from environmental toxicology in
that it integrates the effects of stressors across all levels of
biological organization from the molecular to whole communities and
ecosystems, whereas environmental toxicology focuses upon effects at the
level of the individual and below.
Super
Fungi Pure Science Specials (film)
Season 1 Ep 75 | 11/05/2014 | 52:09
Stephen Axford: How
fungi changed my view of the world (youtube) - Fantastic images of
mushrooms.
Ants that Farm (youtube)
How Soil Fungi Respond to Wildfire
Soil Carbon Capture -
Water Testing
How climate warming could disrupt a deep-rooted relationship. Trees
depend on fungi for their well-being. As
climate change and
global warming cause
higher temperatures and amplified drought, little is known about how these
important fungi will respond. To investigate this issue, a research team
conducted a climate change experiment where they exposed boreal and
temperate tree species to warming and drought treatments to better
understand how fungi and their tree hosts respond to environmental
changes. Their findings revealed that the combined effects of warming and
water stress will likely result in major disturbances of
ectomycorrhizal networks and may
harm forest resilience and function.
Evolution of Fungi has been going on since fungi diverged from other
life around 1.5 billion years ago, with the glomaleans branching from the
"higher fungi" at ~570 million years ago, according to DNA analysis. (Schüssler
et al., 2001; Tehler et al., 2000) Fungi probably colonized the land
during the Cambrian, over 500 million years ago, (Taylor & Osborn, 1996),
and possibly 635 million years ago during the Ediacaran, but terrestrial
fossils only become uncontroversial and common during the Devonian, 400
million years ago. Evidence from DNA analysis suggests that all fungi are
descended from one common ancestor, at least 600 million years ago. It is
probable that these earliest fungi lived in water, and had flagella.
Terrestrial Ecology -
Terrestrial -
Soil and Plant Scientists Jobs
Soil Solarization is an environmentally friendly method of
using solar power for controlling pests such as soilborne plant pathogens
including fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and insect and mite pests along with
weed seed and seedlings in the soil by mulching the soil and covering it
with tarp, usually with a transparent polyethylene cover, to trap solar
energy. It may also describe methods of decontaminating soil using
sunlight or solar power. This energy causes physical, chemical, and
biological changes in the soil.
Fertilizers
Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic
origin that is applied to soils or to plant
tissues or leaves to supply one or more plant nutrients that are essential
to the growth of plants.
Waste Fertilizer (other than liming materials).
Plant Nutrition
is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant
growth, plant metabolism and their external supply. In
its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle, or that
the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite.
Malnutrition -
Fortification -
Fixation -
Contaminated Soil -
CO2 Affect
Soil Conditioner is a product which is added to soil to improve the
soil’s physical qualities, especially its ability to provide nutrition for
plants. In general usage, the term "soil conditioner" is often thought of
as a subset of the category soil amendments, which more often is
understood to include a wide range of fertilizers and non-organic
materials.
Soil Amendment helps improve plant
growth and health. Lime makes soil less acidic. Fertilizers for plant
nutrients, like manure, peat, or compost. Materials for water retention
like clay, shredded bark, or vermiculite. Gypsum helps release nutrients
and improves structure.
Heterotrophic
is a plant requiring organic compounds of carbon and nitrogen for
nourishment.
Soil
Quality is a measure of the
condition of soil relative to the
requirements of one or more
biotic species and
or to any human need or purpose. The capacity to function, within
natural or managed
ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity,
maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and
habitation. Soil quality is an account of the soil's ability to provide
ecosystem and
social services through its
capacities to perform its functions under changing conditions. Soil
quality reflects how well a soil performs the functions of maintaining
biodiversity and
productivity, partitioning water
and solute flow, filtering and buffering, nutrient cycling, and providing
support for plants and other structures. Soil management has a major
impact on soil quality.
Soil Fertility refers to the ability of soil to
sustain agricultural
plant growth, i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and
consistent yields of high quality. A fertile soil has the following
properties: The ability to supply essential plant nutrients and water in
adequate amounts and proportions for plant growth and reproduction and
the absence of toxic substances which may
inhibit plant growth. The following properties contribute to soil
fertility in most situations: Sufficient soil depth for adequate root
growth and water retention; Good internal drainage, allowing sufficient
aeration for optimal root growth (although some plants, such as rice,
tolerate waterlogging); Topsoil with sufficient soil organic matter for
healthy soil structure and soil moisture retention; Soil pH in the range
5.5 to 7.0 (suitable for most plants but some prefer or tolerate more acid
or alkaline conditions); Adequate concentrations of essential plant
nutrients in plant-available forms; Presence of a range of microorganisms
that support plant growth. In lands used for agriculture and other human
activities, maintenance of soil fertility typically requires the use of
soil conservation practices. This is because soil erosion and other forms
of soil degradation generally result in a decline in quality with respect
to one or more of the aspects indicated above.
Soil
Health is a state of a
soil meeting its range
of ecosystem functions as appropriate to its environment.
Soil Health Testing is an assessment of this
status. Soil health depends on soil biodiversity (with a robust soil
biota), and it can be improved via soil conditioning (soil amendment). The
term soil health is used to describe the state of a soil in: Sustaining
plant and animal productivity and biodiversity (Soil biodiversity);
Maintaining or enhance water and air quality; Supporting human health and
habitation.
Soil Health
Institute - Safeguard and enhance the vitality and productivity of
soil through scientific research and advancement.
Soil naturally absorbs
carbon from the atmosphere through a process known as sequestration.
Healthy soils store more carbon than the earth’s atmosphere and all its
plants and animals combined.
The combination of erosion and less healthy soils depletes a valuable
resource for farmers, and results in massive amounts of carbon and
nitrogen leaving the soil and entering our atmosphere as carbon dioxide
and nitrous oxide.
Phosphorus
is a chemical element with symbol
P and atomic number 15. As an element,
phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red
phosphorus—but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as
a free element on Earth. At 0.099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earth's crust. With few exceptions, minerals containing
phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate
rocks.
Nitrogen is a
chemical element with symbol
N and atomic number 7. It is the lightest
member of group
15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It
is a common element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total
abundance in the Milky Way and the Solar System. At standard temperature
and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen, a
colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2. Dinitrogen forms
about
78% of Earth's Atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined
element. Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids (and
thus proteins), in the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and in the energy
transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate. The human body contains about 3%
nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after
Oxygen,
Carbon, and
hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the
element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, then back
into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Fixation.
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol
K and atomic number 19. It
was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which its name
derives. In the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. All
of the alkali metals have a single valence electron in the outer electron
shell, which is easily removed to create an ion with a positive charge – a cation, which combines with anions to form salts. Potassium in nature
occurs only in ionic salts. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white
alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and reacts vigorously with
water, generating sufficient heat to ignite hydrogen emitted in the
reaction and burning with a lilac-colored flame. It is found dissolved in
sea water (which is 0.04% potassium by weight), and is part of many
minerals. Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of
which 40 K is radioactive. Traces of 40 K are found in all potassium,
and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body. Potassium is
chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the
periodic table. They have a similar ionization energy, which allows for
each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different
elements that combine with the same anions to make similar salts was
suspected in 1702,and was proven in 1807 using electrolysis. Most
industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water
of potassium compounds, such as potassium soaps. Heavy crop production
rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with
agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of
global potassium chemical production. Potassium ions are necessary for the
function of all living cells. The transfer of potassium ions through nerve
cell membranes is necessary for normal nerve transmission; potassium
depletion can result in numerous abnormalities, including an abnormal
heart rhythm and various electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities. Fresh
fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. The body
responds to the influx of dietary potassium, which raises serum potassium
levels, with a shift of potassium from outside to inside cells and an
increase in potassium excretion by the kidneys.
Calcium
is a chemical element with symbol
Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a
soft gray Group 2 alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by
mass in the Earth's crust. The ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant
dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium,
chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to
occur in nature. Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis.Calcium
is an essential trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant
metal by mass in many animals, and it is an important constituent of bone,
teeth, and shells. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into
and out of the cytoplasm functions as a signal for many cellular
processes. Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as
dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organization's List of
Essential Medicines.
Magnesium is a chemical element with symbol
Mg
and atomic number 12.
It is a shiny gray solid which bears a close physical resemblance to the
other five elements in the second column (Group 2, or alkaline earth
metals) of the periodic table: all Group 2 elements have the same electron
configuration in the outer electron shell and a similar crystal structure.
Magnesium is the ninth most abundant element in the universe. It is
produced in large, aging stars from the sequential addition of three
helium nuclei to a carbon nucleus. When such stars explode as supernovas,
much of the magnesium is expelled into the interstellar medium where it
may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant
element in the Earth's crust and the fourth most common element in the
Earth (after iron, oxygen and silicon), making up 13% of the planet's mass
and a large fraction of the planet's mantle. It is the third most abundant
element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine. Magnesium occurs
naturally only in combination with other elements, where it invariably has
a +2 oxidation state. The free element (metal) can be produced
artificially, and is highly reactive (though in the atmosphere, it is soon
coated in a thin layer of oxide that partly inhibits reactivity — see
passivation). The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant-white
light. The metal is now obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts
obtained from brine, and is used primarily as a component in aluminium-magnesium
alloys, sometimes called magnalium or magnelium. Magnesium is less dense
than aluminium, and the alloy is prized for its combination of lightness
and strength. Magnesium is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in
the human body and is essential to all cells and some 300 enzymes.
Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, and
RNA. Hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium
compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids (e.g., milk
of magnesia), and to stabilize abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel
spasm in such conditions as eclampsia.
Sulfur
is a chemical element with symbol
S and atomic number 16. It is abundant,
multivalent, and nonmetalic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form
cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a
bright yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur
reacts with all elements except for gold, platinum, iridium, tellurium,
and the noble gases. Though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur
usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native
form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in
ancient India, ancient Greece, China, and Egypt. In the Bible, sulfur is
called brimstone. Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a
byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and
petroleum. The greatest commercial use of the element is the production of
sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, and other chemical
processes. The element sulfur is used in matches, insecticides, and
fungicides. Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of
odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to
rotting eggs and other biological processes. Sulfur is an essential
element for all life, but almost always in the form of organosulfur
compounds or metal sulfides. Three amino acids (cysteine, cystine, and
methionine) and two vitamins (biotin and thiamine) are organosulfur
compounds. Many cofactors also contain sulfur including glutathione and
thioredoxin and iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer
mechanical strength and insolubility of the protein keratin, found in
outer skin, hair, and feathers. Sulfur is one of the core chemical
elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental
macronutrient for all organisms.
Regulation of Phosphate Starvation Responses in Plants: Signaling players
and cross-talks.
Phosphate or Pi availability is a major factor limiting growth,
development, and productivity of plants. In both ecological and
agricultural contexts, plants often grow in soils with low soluble
phosphate content. Plants respond to this situation by a series of
developmental and metabolic adaptations that are aimed at increasing the
acquisition of this vital nutrient from the soil, as well as to sustain
plant growth and survival. The development of a comprehensive
understanding of how plants sense phosphate deficiency and coordinate the
responses via signaling pathways has become of major interest, and a
number of signaling players and networks have begun to surface for the
regulation of the phosphate-deficiency response. In practice, application
of such knowledge to improve plant Pi nutrition is hindered by complex
cross-talks, which are emerging in the face of new data, such as the
coordination of the phosphate-deficiency signaling networks with those
involved with hormones, photo-assimilates (sugar), as well as with the
homeostasis of other ions, such as iron. In this review, we focus on these
cross-talks and on recent progress in discovering new signaling players
involved in the Pi-starvation responses, such as proteins having SPX domains.
Safe Fertilizer (PDF) -
Safe Organic Pesticides.
Plant Protein discovery could reduce need for fertilizer. Researchers
have discovered how a protein in plant roots controls the uptake of
minerals and water, a finding which could improve the tolerance of
agricultural crops to climate change and reduce the need for chemical
fertilizers. Members of the blue copper proteins family, the Uclacyanins
are vital in the formation of Casparian strips. These strips are essential
structures that control mineral nutrient and water use efficiencies by
forming tight seals between cells in plants, blocking nutrients and water
leaking between. This is the first evidence showing the implications of
this family in the biosynthesis of lignin, one of the most abundant
organic polymers on earth. This study reveals that the molecular machinery
required for Casparian strip lignin deposition is highly ordered by
forming nano-domains which can have a huge impact on plant nutrition, a
finding that could help in the development of crops that are efficient in
taking in the nutrients they need.
Haber Process is
the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia. It converts
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen
(H2) using a finely divided iron metal catalyst.
Fritz
Haber was a German chemist who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
in 1918 for his invention of the Haber–Bosch process, a method used in
industry to synthesize
ammonia
from nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. This invention is important for the
large-scale synthesis of fertilizers and explosives. It is estimated that
two thirds of annual global food production uses ammonia from the
Haber–Bosch process, and that this supports nearly half the world
population. Haber, along with Max Born, proposed the Born–Haber cycle as a
method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid. Haber is also
considered the "father of chemical warfare" for his years of pioneering
work developing and weaponizing chlorine and other poisonous gases during
World War I, especially his actions during the Second Battle of Ypres.
Chemists close in on greener method for making fertilizer. Known as
laughing gas, nitrous oxide is no laughing matter. The potent greenhouse
gas emitted during the production of fertilizer is 300 times more harmful
than carbon dioxide, forcing industrial factories all over the world to
spend a lot of money and energy to dispose of the waste byproduct. But in
a breakthrough that one day might enable farmers to produce their own
fertilizer from recycled waste, University of Miami chemists Carl Hoff and
Burjor Captain have shown for the first time that it’s possible to convert
nitrous oxide into potassium nitrate—a key component of the fertilizer
needed to feed half the world’s population. Now that the chemists know it
is possible to convert nitrous oxide into a nitrate using low temperatures
and low pressure, they are working on developing ways to speed up the
process. Figuring out how to increase the yield for industrial use will
fall to engineers. But Hoff already can envision the day that farmers
across the heartland will use their grain windmills to produce their own
fertilizer. The method we are working on now to trap gases in a solid
matrix uses mechanical energy, so it can be adapted to windmill energy.
With a modern adaptation, the chemical reactions needed to make the
fertilizer could be done right there on the farm, using energy from the
windmills that farmers have used for centuries to grind grain. They could,
in essence, create their own fertilizer from salt mixtures and waste gas
from the combustion of ammonia that powers farm equipment.
Human Urine could be used as eco-friendly crop fertilizer. Bacterial
communities in soil are as resilient to human
urine as synthetic fertilizers --
making recycling the bodily fluid as a fertilizer for agricultural crops a
viable proposition. However, the researchers did discover that urine
fertilization increased the relative amounts of nitrifying and
denitrifying groups compared to synthetic fertiliser -- implying that more
nitrogen oxides could be emitted when fertilising with urine.
Fresh urine is composed of 95 %
water with the remaining 5% made up of amino compounds, such as urea or
creatinine, organic anions and inorganic salts making it a source of
bioavailable nutrients and micronutrients for plant growth.
Charcoal - Carbon
Biochar
is charcoal used as a soil amendment. Like most charcoal, biochar is made
from
biomass via
pyrolysis. Biochar is under investigation as an approach to
carbon sequestration
to produce negative carbon dioxide emissions. Biochar thus has the
potential to help mitigate climate change via carbon sequestration.
Independently, biochar can increase soil fertility of
acidic soils (low pH
soils), increase agricultural productivity, and provide protection against
some foliar and
soil-borne diseases. Furthermore, biochar reduces pressure on forests.
Biochar is a stable solid,
rich in carbon, and can endure in soil for
thousands of years.
Lignite
is an intermediate between peat and bituminous coal.
Pyrogenic Carbon includes soot, char, black carbon, and biochar.
It's produced by the incomplete combustion of
organic matter accompanying
biomass burning and fossil fuel consumption.
Activate your
Biochar.
Using Biochar combined with fertilizer significantly improved height and
diameter growth of tree seedlings while also increasing the number of
leaves the seedlings developed. The most difficult period in a tree
seedling's life is the first few months after transplanting. Biochar's
benefits are many: It improves the soil's ability to hold water and makes
it less acidic. It provides a welcoming habitat for microbes, which
support plant growth. It holds onto fertilizer and releases it over time,
decreasing the need for repeat applications of fertilizer, which cuts
labor and supply costs.
Pacific Biochar - Put Carbon Safely Back in the Ground and Leave a
Legacy of Fertile Soil.
Charcoal
is the lightweight
black carbon and ash residue hydrocarbon produced by
removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation
substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow
pyrolysis — the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of
oxygen. This process is called charcoal burning. The finished charcoal
consists largely of
carbon. The
advantage of using charcoal instead of just burning wood is the removal of
the water and other components. This allows charcoal to burn to a higher
temperature, and give off very little smoke (regular wood gives off a good
amount of steam, organic volatiles, and unburnt carbon particles — soot —
in its smoke).
Carbon Capture -
Offsets
Enhanced Weathering is a process that aims to accelerate the natural
weathering by spreading finely ground silicate rock, such as basalt, onto
surfaces which speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air.
It also removes carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, permanently
storing it in solid carbonate minerals or ocean alkalinity. The latter
also slows ocean acidification. Although existing mine tailings or
alkaline industrial silicate minerals (such as steel slags, construction &
demolition waste, or ash from biomass incineration) may be used at first,
mining more basalt might eventually be required to limit climate change.
Undo.
Efficient Stoves
saves
Trees and Forests
and Reduces
greenhouse
gas emissions.
Soil pore structure is key to carbon storage. If we can design or
breed crops with rooting characteristics that favor this kind of soil
porosity and therefore that favor soil carbon stabilization, that would be
a pretty smart way to design systems that can build carbon faster.
Microbial Inoculant or soil inoculants are agricultural amendments
that use beneficial endophytes (
microbes)
to promote plant health. Many of the microbes involved form
symbiotic
relationships with the target crops where both parties benefit
(mutualism). While microbial inoculants are applied to improve plant
nutrition, they can also be used to promote plant growth by stimulating
plant hormone production.
Nitrifying Bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include
species of the genera Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrobacter and
Nitrococcus. These bacteria get their energy by the oxidation of inorganic
nitrogen compounds. Types include ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB). Many species of nitrifying bacteria have
complex internal membrane systems that are the location for key enzymes in
nitrification: ammonia monooxygenase (which oxidizes ammonia to
hydroxylamine), hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (which oxidizes hydroxylamine
to nitric oxide - which is oxidized to nitrite by a currently unidentified
enzyme), and nitrite oxidoreductase (which oxidizes
nitrite
to
nitrate.
Nitrifying bacteria convert the most reduced form of soil nitrogen,
ammonia, into its most oxidized form, nitrate. In itself, this is
important for soil ecosystem function, in controlling losses of soil
nitrogen through leaching and denitrification of nitrate. Nitrifiers also
contribute to other important processes, including nitrous oxide
production, methane oxidation, degradation of organic compounds, and
carbon monoxide oxidation. The development of 15N-based techniques has
increased significantly our ability to dissect soil nitrogen
transformations and their rates, while molecular techniques now enable
characterization of soil nitrifier community structure and changes in
species composition. These approaches are increasing our understanding of
the ecology of soil-nitrifying bacteria and provide the potential for
determining relationships between diversity, community structure, and
ecosystem function in this important group of
organisms.
Cation-Exchange Capacity is a measure of how many
cations can be
retained on soil particle surfaces. Negative charges on the surfaces of
soil particles bind
positively-charged atoms or
molecules (cations), but
allow these to exchange with other positively charged particles in the
surrounding soil water. This is one of the ways that solid materials in
soil alter the chemistry of the soil.
Bio-Fertilizer is a substance which contains living
microorganisms which,
when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere
or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply
or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. Biofertilizers add
nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing
phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of
growth-promoting substances. Biofertilizers can be expected to reduce the
use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The microorganisms in
biofertilizers restore the soil's natural nutrient cycle and build soil
organic matter. Through the use of biofertilizers, healthy plants can be
grown, while enhancing the sustainability and the health of the soil.
Since they play several roles, a preferred scientific term for such
beneficial bacteria is "plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria" (PGPR).
Therefore, they are extremely advantageous in enriching soil fertility and
fulfilling plant nutrient requirements by supplying the organic nutrients
through microorganism and their byproducts. Hence, biofertilizers do not
contain any chemicals which are harmful to the living soil. Biofertilizers
provide "eco-friendly" organic agro-input. Biofertilizers such as
Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirilium and blue green algae (BGA) have been
in use a long time. Rhizobium inoculant is used for leguminous crops.
Azotobacter can be used with crops like wheat, maize, mustard, cotton,
potato and other vegetable crops. Azospirillum inoculations are
recommended mainly for sorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane and wheat. Blue
green algae belonging to a general cyanobacteria genus, Nostoc or Anabaena
or Tolypothrix or Aulosira, fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used as
inoculations for paddy crop grown both under upland and low-land
conditions. Anabaena in association with water fern Azolla contributes
nitrogen up to 60 kg/ha/season and also enriches soils with organic
matter. Other types of bacteria, so-called phosphate-solubilizing
bacteria, such as Pantoea agglomerans strain P5 or Pseudomonas putida
strain P13, are able to solubilize the insoluble phosphate from organic
and inorganic phosphate sources. In fact, due to immobilization of
phosphate by mineral ions such as Fe, Al and Ca or organic acids, the rate
of available phosphate (Pi) in soil is well below plant needs. In
addition, chemical Pi fertilizers are also immobilized in the soil,
immediately, so that less than 20 percent of added fertilizer is absorbed
by plants. Therefore, reduction in Pi resources, on one hand, and
environmental pollutions resulting from both production and applications
of chemical Pi fertilizer, on the other hand, have already demanded the
use of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria or phosphate biofertilizers.
Composting -
Waste Fertilizer -
Activated Carbon
Reactive Nitrogen is a term used for a variety of nitrogen
compounds that support growth directly or indirectly.
Nutrient becomes deadly pollutant
Nitrogen
Footprint Calculator
Fertilizer
Industry
Nitrates (PDF)
Mycorrhiza and less
PhosphorusOcean
Solution is Ocean-Mined Minerals Liquid Organic Fertilizer and Plant Mineralizer.
Why Rock Dust Works
and Doesn't Work (45 mins. youtube)
Rock Dust Local -
Rock Dust -
Rock Dust
Rockdust also known as rock powders,
rock minerals, rock
flour, soil remineralization, and mineral fines, consists of finely
crushed rock, processed by natural or mechanical means, containing
minerals and trace elements widely used in organic farming practices.
Geotherapy: Innovative Methods of Soil Fertility Restoration, Carbon Sequestration, and Reversing CO2 Increase
(book on amazon)
Sea 90
Calcified
Seaweed (youtube)
Blood Meal
Human Excrement Fertilizers
Biosolids -
Bio-Solids
Rich
Earth Institute
Potash
Controlled Burn
Synthetic Fertilizers
Compost Tea
Microdosing: Increasing crop production in sub-Saharan Africa.
Pumice Soil Amendment helps retain
optimal moisture promotes root growth and nutrient enrichment. Substrate
materials such as pumice make for a better growth environment.
Myco Bliss Organic Mycorrhizal Fungi
promotes Vigorous Plant and Root growth -
Improved ability to get
nutrients and water uptake from soil, Decreased amount of watering and
fertilization, Enables the soil to retain nutrients for longer and
increase nutrient use efficiency, Healthier and denser root systems
Reduces transplant shock.
Mushrooms.
Soil Moist
Granular JRM 8LB 1000-2000 Microns. Water Storing Soil Additive
that reduces Plant watering by 50-Percent. Reduces Transplant Shock And
Soil Compaction.
Nitrogen Fixing
Nitrogen
Fixation is a process by which
nitrogen in the air is converted into
ammonia (NH3) or related nitrogenous compounds. Atmospheric nitrogen, is
molecular dinitrogen (N2), a relatively nonreactive molecule that is
metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms. Biological nitrogen
fixation converts N2 into ammonia, which is metabolized by most organisms.
Nitrogen fixation is essential to life because fixed inorganic nitrogen
compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing
organic compounds, such as amino acids and proteins, nucleoside
triphosphates and nucleic acids. As part of the nitrogen cycle, it is
essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also,
indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that
contain nitrogen, which includes explosives, most pharmaceuticals, and
dyes. Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in the soil by a wide
range of microorganisms termed diazotrophs that include bacteria such as
Azotobacter, and archaea. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic
relationships with some plant groups, especially legumes. Looser
non-symbiotic relationships between diazotrophs and plants are often
referred to as associative, as seen in nitrogen fixation on rice roots.
Nitrogen fixation also occurs between some termites and fungi. It also
occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning. All
biological nitrogen fixation is effected by enzymes called nitrogenases.
These enzymes contain iron, often with a second metal, usually molybdenum
but sometimes vanadium.
Nitrogen Fixing Crops
(wiki) -
Cover Crops -
Global Warming
American Farmers used over 24 Billion Pounds of Nitrogen Fertilizer in
2011. And making nitrogen fertilizer requires fossil fuels like
natural gas or coal. In a single year, production of fertilizer in the
United States emitted as much carbon dioxide as two million cars. Trees
can't conjure nitrogen from thin air, but microbes can. Many microbes have
a special enzyme they use to gather nitrogen from the air and turn it into
a form that plants can use, a process called
nitrogen fixation.
Endophyte is an endosymbiont, often a bacterium or fungus, that lives
within a plant for at least part of its life cycle without causing
apparent disease.
Endosymbiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of
another organism in a symbiotic relationship with the host body or cell,
often but not always to mutual benefit.
Perennial Grain is a grain crop that lives and
remains productive for two or more years, rather than growing for
only one season before harvest, like most grains and annual crops. While
many fruit, nut and forage crops are long-lived perennial plants, all
major grain crops presently used in large-scale agriculture are annuals or
short-lived perennials grown as annuals. Scientists from several nations
have argued that perennial versions of today's grain crops could be
developed and that these perennial grains could make grain agriculture
more sustainable. Most agricultural land is devoted to the production of
grain crops: cereal, oilseed, and legume crops occupy 75% of US and 69% of
global croplands. These grains include such crops as wheat, rice, and
maize; together they provide over 70% of human food calories. All these
grain crops are currently annual plants which are generally planted into
cultivated soil. Frequent cultivation puts soil at risk of loss and
degradation. This "central dilemma" of agriculture in which current food
production undermines the potential for future food production could be
escaped by developing perennial grain crops that do not require tilling
the soil each year. No-till technology enables short-lived (annual) crops
to be grown with less intense tillage, but perennial plants provide the
most protection for the soil.
Methods for
developing perennial grains. Three ways of developing perennial
grain crops have been proposed: The primary gene pools of several
domesticated grain crops include perennial types, even though these crops
are generally grown as annuals. Pigeon pea is a large-seeded grain legume
(pulse) with both short-season (annual) and long-season (perennial)
varieties. If the highest-yielding annual varieties were hybridized
with the longest-living varieties, robustly perennial, high-yielding
varieties could be developed. The secondary or tertiary gene pools of most
domesticated grain crops include perennial species. Gene exchange between
such species is possible, though sometimes difficult. Genes enhancing the
agronomic traits of wild perennials, increased seed size, for example,
could be brought in from domestic grain relatives. Alternately, genes
increasing the lifespan of domesticated grains could be obtained by
crossing with wild perennial relatives. For example, domestic Asian rice
can be crossed with wild perennial rice species to exchange genes for many
traits. Wild perennial plants with oil-, carbohydrate- or protein-rich
seeds could be domesticated without any wide hybridization. Although our
grain crops were all domesticated thousands of years ago, modern genetic
theory and molecular genetic techniques may greatly accelerate the process
compared with the original process of domestication. The Rodale Institute
and The Land Institute have each had plant breeding projects in which a
wild, perennial grass, Thinopyrum intermedium was subjected to recurrent
cycles of selection for improved grain traits.. The land Institute since
has begun marketing their work under the trade name Kernza.
Advantages of perennial crops. Several
claims have been published: Greater access to resources through a longer
season.Perennial plants typically emerge earlier than annuals in the
spring and go dormant in the autumn well after annual plants have died.
The longer growing season allows greater interception of sunlight and
rainfall. For example, In Minnesota, annual soybean seedlings emerge from
the soil in early June. By this time perennial alfalfa has grown so much
that it is ready for the first harvest. Therefore, by the time a soybean
crop has just begun to photosynthesize, a field of alfalfa has already
produced about 40% of the season’s production. Greater access to resources
through a deeper rooting zone. Most long—lived plants construct larger,
deeper root systems than short-lived plants adapted to the same region .
Deeper roots enable perennials to "mine" a larger volume of soil each
year. A larger volume of soil also available for exploitation per unit of
cropland also means a larger volume of soil water serves as a reservoir
for periods without rainfall. More efficient use of soil nutrients.
Leaching of nitrogen from fertilizer has been found to be much lower under
perennial crops such as alfalfa (lucerne) than annual crops such as maize.
A similar phenomenon is seen in unfertilized fields harvested for wild
hay. While adjacent wheat fields required annual inputs of fertilizer, the
wild perennial grasses continued to produce nitrogen-rich hay for 75 to
100 years with no appreciable decline in productivity or soil fertility.
Presumably, the larger root systems of the perennial plants and the
microbial community they support intercept and cycle nutrients passing
through the system much more efficiently than do the ephemeral root
systems of crop plants. Sustainable production on marginal lands. Cassman
et al. (2003) wrote that for large areas in poor regions of the world,
“annual cereal cropping …is not likely to be sustainable over the longer
term because of severe erosion risk. Perennial crops and agroforestry
systems are better suited to these environments.” Current perennial crops
and agroforestry systems do not produce grain. Grain provides greater food
security than forage or fruit because it can be eaten directly by humans
(unlike forage) and it can be stored (unlike fruit) for consumption during
the winter or dry season.
Reduced Soil erosion
U.S. Forest Service et al. cite perennial grasses as a preventative for
soil erosion. Perennials of all kinds establish thick root systems which
tie up soil and prevent surface erosion by wind and water. Since water
runoff is slowed, it has a longer time to soak in and enter the
groundwater system. Net water inflow into streams is marginally reduced
due to groundwater infusion, but this also reduces high flow rates in
streams associated with fast-flowing water-based erosion of streambeds.
Increased wildlife populations U.S. Forest Service et all cite slower
release of water into streams, which makes water levels more consistent
instead of alternating between dry and flash-flood situations common to
deserts. Consistent water levels contribute to increased wildlife
populations of fish, amphibians, waterfowl, and mammals dependent upon a
consistent water source.
Reduced weed competition"
- Minimizing tillage and herbicide applications. Improved soil microbiomes
- Perennial grain crops may nurture beneficial soil microbiomes, as the
frequent soil disturbance required in annual crop production is disruptive
to these microbiomes.
Sequester more carbon
- It is perenial grains may sequester more carbon, due to better landscape
management, and maintaining more cropland in production
Potential disadvantages of perennial crops.
Does not address food security today. Perennial grain crops are in the
early stages of development and may take many years before achieving
yields equivalent to annual grains. Makes crop rotation more difficult.
Crop rotations with perennial systems are possible, but the full rotation
will necessarily take longer. For example, a perennial hay crop. like
alfalfa is commonly rotated with annual crops or other perennial hay crops
after 3–5 years. The slower pace of rotation—compared with annual
crops—could allow a greater buildup of pathogens, pests or weeds in the
perennial phase of the rotation. Builds soil organic matter at the expense
of plant productivity. In the absence of tillage, and in soils with
depleted organic matter, crops with large root systems may build up
organic matter to the point that nearly all of the soil nitrogen and
phosphorus is immobilized. When this happens, productivity may decline
until either the organic matter builds up to a level where equilibrium is
reached between nutrient mineralization and nutrient immobilization or
fertilizer is added to the system. Hydrological impacts. Perennial plants
may intercept and utilize more of the incoming rainfall. than annual
plants each year. This may result in water tables dropping and/or reduced
surface flow to rivers. Reduced nutrient delivery to downstream farms.
Wide replacement of annual with perennial plants on agricultural
landscapes could stabilize soils and reduce nitrate leaching to the point
that the delivery of sediment and dissolved nitrogen to downstream
landscapes could be reduced. Farmers in these areas may currently rely on
these nutrient inputs. On the other hand, other sectors might benefit from
improved water quality. Improved habitat for pests. If fields are not left
bare for a portion of the year, rodents and insects populations may
increase. Burning of the stubble of perennial grains could reduce these
populations, but burning may not be permitted in some areas. Furthermore,
rodents and insects living underground would survive burning, whereas
tillage disrupts their habitat.
New Rhizobia-diatom symbiosis solves long-standing marine mystery.
Scientists have discovered a new partnership between a marine diatom and a
bacterium that can account for a large share of nitrogen fixation in vast
regions of the ocean.
Worms
Worm are many
different distantly related animals that typically have a long cylindrical
tube-like body, no limbs, and no eyes. Worms vary in size from microscopic
to over 1 metre (3.3 ft) in length for marine polychaete worms (bristle
worms), 6.7 metres (22 ft) for the African giant earthworm, Microchaetus
rappi, and 58 metres (190 ft) for the marine nemertean worm (bootlace
worm), Lineus longissimus. Various types of worm occupy a small variety of
parasitic niches, living inside the bodies of other animals. Free-living
worm species do not live on land, but instead, live in marine or
freshwater environments, or underground by burrowing. A worm is any of
numerous relatively small elongated soft-bodied animals especially of the
phyla Annelida and Chaetognatha and Nematoda and Nemertea and
Platyhelminthes; also many insect larvae.
Make a Worm Farm -
Uncle Jims
Worm Farm -
Garden Worms
Worm Charming are methods of attracting earthworms from the
ground.
How to
get earthworm by applying 220 volts to the ground (youtube)
Official Soil Series Descriptions (OSD) with series extent mapping
capabilities
Vermicompost is the product of the
composting process using
various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and other
earthworms, to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or
food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast, also called worm castings,
worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic
matter by an earthworm. These castings have been shown to contain reduced
levels of
contaminants and a higher saturation of nutrients than do
organic materials before vermicomposting. Containing water-soluble
nutrients, vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient-rich organic
fertilizer
and soil conditioner. This process of producing vermicompost is called
vermicomposting. While vermicomposting is generally known as a nutrient
rich source of organic compost used in farming and small scale
sustainable, organic farming, the process of vermicasting is undergoing
research as a treatment for organic waste in sewage and wastewater plants
around the world.
Salt - Soil Salinity
Soil Salinity
is the
Salt content in
the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as
salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can
be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the
gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also come about through artificial
processes such as irrigation. A soil with excess salts where sodium
chloride (NaCl) predominates. Soils vary depending on various chemicals
present.
Soil
Acidification.
Alkali
Soil are
clay soils with
high pH (> 8.5), due to
the presence of excessive sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and a poor soil
structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard
calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their
unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the dominating presence
of sodium carbonate, which causes the soil to swell and difficult to
clarify/settle. They derive their name from the alkali metal group of
elements, to which sodium belongs, and which can induce basicity.
Sometimes these soils are also referred to as alkaline
sodic
soils. Alkaline soils are basic, but not all basic soils are alkaline.
Soil Salinity Control
Salt Remediation
Sodium Affected Soils (PDF)
Soil
Drainage and Salt (PDF)
Gypsum
Agricultural Lime
Calcium Nitrate
Nitrate
Epsom Salt used as a
Foliar Spray or
Soil Additive will
help tomato and pepper plants grow and produce larger, tastier
yields.
Soil
Conditioner Acidity
Breakthrough in salt-tolerance in plants research could lead to new
salt tolerant varieties of crops.
Consider The Salt-Tolerant Potato
Salt Farm Texel
pitch at World Water Week 2014 in Stockholm, Sweden (youtube)
Desalination (sea water)
Rice that can grow in seawater. Chinese
scientists have developed several types of rice that can be grown in
seawater, potentially creating enough food for 200 million people.
Water Management
Water Resource Management is the activity of planning, developing,
distributing and
managing the optimum use of
water resources. It is a sub-set
of
water cycle management. Water resource
management
planning has regard
to all the competing demands for water and seeks to
allocate water on an
equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands. One of the biggest
concerns for our water-based resources in the future is the sustainability
of the current and future water resource allocation. As water becomes more
scarce, the importance of how it is managed grows vastly. Finding a
balance between what is needed by
humans and what is needed in the
environment is an important step in the
sustainability of water resources.
Agriculture
is the largest user of the world's freshwater resources, consuming 70
percent.
Water Management -
Dry Land Farming
Irrigation (drip) -
Automatic Watering Systems
Erosion -
Sinkholes
Cover Crop has many beneficial reasons. It helps manage
soil erosion, soil fertility,
soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases,
biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem, or an
ecological system managed and largely shaped by humans across a range of
intensities to produce food, feed, or fiber. 17 million acres of farmland
use cover crops, that's only 10% of farm acres in the U.S.. Currently, not many countries
are known for using the cover crop method. Cover crops are of interest in
sustainable agriculture as many of them improve the sustainability of agroecosystem attributes and may also indirectly improve qualities of
neighboring natural ecosystems. Farmers choose to grow and manage specific
cover crop types based on their own needs and goals, influenced by the
biological, environmental, social, cultural, and economic factors of the
food system in which they operate (Snapp et al. 2005). The farming
practice of cover crops has been recognized as climate-smart agriculture
by the White House. Cover crops helps to lower soil temperature which is
beneficial to
microbial health.
Crop Rotation -
No-Till -
Nitrogen
Fixing -
Carbon
Cover Crops -
Woodchips in Garden -
Tub Grinders
Mulch
-
Vegetable Garden Mulches
- Good soil retains water but also drains well.
Drainage Systems - Catch Basins (youtube)
-
Landscape Drainage Solutions
Hydroponics -
Fortification -
Drinking Water Management
Contour Plowing is the farming practice of plowing and/or planting
across a slope following its elevation contour lines. These
contour lines create a water break which
reduces the formation of rills and gullies during times of heavy water
run-off; which is a major cause of soil erosion. The water break also
allows more time for the water to settle into the soil. In contour
plowing, the ruts made by the plow run perpendicular rather than parallel
to the slopes, generally resulting in furrows that curve around the land
and are level. This method is also known for preventing tillage erosion.
Tillage erosion is the soil movement and erosion by tilling a given plot
of land. A similar practice is contour bunding where stones are placed
around the contours of slopes. Contour ploughing helps to reduce soil
erosion. Soil erosion prevention practices such as this can drastically
decrease negative effects associated with
soil erosion such as reduced crop productivity, worsened water
quality, lower effective reservoir water levels, flooding, and habitat
destruction. Contour farming is considered an active form of sustainable
agriculture.
Moisture Sensors for Soil Monitoring
Soil Sensors
monitors environmental conditions in your garden. Water Valve
automatically gives your plants exactly the amount of water they need.
Soil Sensor science
of monitoring soil conditions, including soil moisture.
G Thrive hardware
and software field monitoring solution measuring 5 key parameters
Sunlight, Air Temperature, Soil Temperature, Soil Moisture (volumetric),
Electrical Conductivity (EC). Delivers that information wirelessly to your
smartphone or laptop.
Soil Moisture Meter
(amazon)
Water
Sensors -
Sensor
Technologies
Sensprout monitors the level of moisture.
Leaf Sensors can tell Farmers when Crops need to be Watered.
Engineers make wearable sensors for plants, enabling measurements of water
use in crops.
New wearable technology for plants. Plants can't speak up when they
are thirsty. And visual signs, such as shriveling or browning leaves,
don't start until most of their water is gone. To detect water loss
earlier, researchers have created a wearable sensor for plant leaves. The
system wirelessly transmits data to a smartphone app, allowing for remote
management of drought stress in gardens and crops.
Mist: Sprinkler System Sprinkler Controller + Soil Sensors =
Perfect Watering. Save 80% in Drought Mode. iOS/Android App.
Forage Boost -
SumaGrow -
Sensors
(ai)
Hydrogels is a network of polymer chains that are
hydrophilic, sometimes found as a colloidal gel in which water is the
dispersion medium. Hydrogels are highly absorbent (they can contain over
90% water) natural or synthetic polymeric networks. Hydrogels also possess
a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissue, due to their
significant water content.
Hydrogels.
Soil Conditioning Technology
Soil Nutrient Management (epa)
Soil Food Web is the community of organisms living all or
part of their lives in the soil. It describes a complex living system in
the soil and how it interacts with the environment, plants, and animals.
Food webs describe the transfer of energy between species in an ecosystem.
Landscaping (lawns) -
Farming Knowledge
More than 50 percent America’s Topsoil has Eroded Away. 40 percent
of
rainwater runs off uncovered dry land soil. But organic matter can hold
up to 90 percent of its weight in water and releases that moisture slowly
over time, particularly helpful in areas prone to drought. Soil, at its
base, is 50 percent gas and water, and roughly 45 percent minerals such as
sand, silt and clay. The remainder is organic matter—decomposing plants
and animals. For being such a small portion of dirt, organic matter plays
a huge role. It serves as food for microorganisms that do everything from
store water to provide nutrients for plants and control pests. Researchers
are learning more and more about the exchange between plants and fungi,
bacteria and other organisms in the soil, said Robert Myers, a professor
of soil sciences at the University of Missouri. Promoting soil health
comes down to three basic practices: Make sure the soil is covered with
plants at all times, diversify what it grows and don’t disrupt it. What
this means in practice is rotating crops, so fields aren’t trying to
support the same plant year after year. And it means using techniques like
“cover-cropping”–planting a secondary plant like grasses, legumes or
vegetables–between rows of crops or on other exposed soil instead of
leaving it bare. Using a cover crop protects the soil, reduces erosion,
encourages biodiversity and returns nutrients like nitrogen to the earth.
Most U.S. acres planted with major crops—about 60 percent—were still
tilled in 2010-2011.
Human Senses -
Artificial
Sensors‘Whenever the
soil is rich the people flourish, physically and economically.
Wherever the soil is wasted the people are wasted. A poor soil produces
only a poor people—poor economically, poor spiritually and intellectually, poor physically.’
George Washington Carver (wiki)