Science
Science is a
method of
learning and a way of establishing
facts through
investigations and
research. Science is understanding
causes and
effects and the nature of
reality. Science is
examining and
exploring
different aspects of the
physical
world. Science can cover a lot of different
subjects, so depending on the
type of science that you are studying, each one
will require a unique set of skills that you will need to learn, and you will
also have to
study areas of knowledge
that are more focused on a particular subject. And to work as a scientist
you may need to acquire an
academic degree.
Science
is a
systematic effort of
acquiring knowledge through
observation and
experimentation. Science uses
logic and
reasoning to find out what can
be
proven or
not be proven. The word "science"
comes from the Latin word "
scientia" meaning
knowledge. Modern science respects
objective logical
reasoning, and follows a set of core
procedures or
rules in order to
determine the nature and underlying
natural laws of the universe and
everything in it. Some scientists do not know of the rules themselves, but
follow them through
research policies. These
procedures are known as the
scientific method.
Science Tools -
DIY -
Inventions -
Evidence
-
Repeatable -
Peer Reviewed
-
Procedures
Scientist is a
practitioner
of science and a person who engages in
systematic activities to
acquire
knowledge that
would help to
describe and
predict the
natural world. A scientist is an individual who uses the
scientific method to
solve problems or to find solutions to problems. A scientist may be an
expert in one or more areas of
science or they can be a
DIY independent
scientist who likes to learn new things and
pursue knowledge as a hobby or as
a
personal pursuit.
Scientist Skills: You should know
how to accurately
measure things and have
good
math skills so you can
accurately count things.
You should be good at
observing things
and be able to use one of more of your
senses to gather
information. You should
be
skillful using
tools and
technology. You should
know the basics of setting up an
experiment and
running a
test or carrying out an experiment using
standard techniques and
procedures. You should know how to do a thorough
investigation. You should know how to do
research effectively and
efficiently. You should have a large vocabulary with good
language skills. You should have excellent
reading and
writing
skills along with good
verbal communication
skills. You should have the ability to handle
large datasets and perform
high-level
data analysis. You
should have good
time management
skills. You should be able to be an independent worker and also work
well in teams or in groups. You should be an
analytical thinker and a
critical thinker at the same
time. You should know how to
improvise and
think outside the box. You should know when to change direction,
change focus and recalculate your priorities. You should be flexible and
adaptable.
All
students should have scientific
skills because these skills are transferrable and can be
repurposed in all kinds of ways
to
solve all kinds of problems. So
understanding science is not just about working in a particular science
field, being a good scientist is someone who can also use science skills
to analyze their own life and become more understanding of themselves and
the world around them. A good scientist can do all kinds of
scientific work
that can make a difference. This is why every student should learn the
skills of a scientist, because life itself is a scientific journey and not
just a spiritual journey of the mind. No one is saying that you have to be
an Einstein, but you should at least understand who Einstein was, and
understand the skills that Einstein used to do his research and learn as
much as he did. So you're not just doing science work, you're doing life's
work, because you are directly involved with understanding the processes
life. So even if you don't become a scientist by trade, you can at least
be a scientist of life.
Technologist is a person who uses scientific
knowledge to solve practical problems.
Technology Education.
Scientism
is a term used to describe the universal applicability of the
scientific
method and approach, and the view that empirical science constitutes the
most authoritative worldview or the most valuable part of human
learning—to the exclusion of other
viewpoints or
theory's.
Laws
of Science -
Theory -
Standards -
Junk
STEM Fields
are the academic disciplines of
Science,
Technology,
Engineering
and
Mathematics.
Mathematics, Engineering,
Science Achievement (MESA) -
Gifted Science Tools -
Science Films -
Science News -
Science Resources
-
Science Literature
Scully
Effect is the name given to a phenomenon that was caused by the
character Dana Scully's role as a medical doctor and FBI Special Agent in
the TV series called the X-Files in the early 1990s. Dana Scully
inspired many young women to pursue careers in science, medicine,
engineering, and law enforcement, and as a result brought a perceptible
increase in the number of women in those fields.
First-grade girls stick with science after pretending to be Marie Curie.
Make-believe exercise boosted their fortitude on a challenging science
game. A new study, appearing Sept. 28 in the journal Psychological
Science, suggests that science role-playing may help tighten the gender
gap in science, technology, engineering, and math or STEM education and
careers for women simply by improving their identity as scientists.
Scientific Literacy encompasses
written, numerical, and digital
literacy as they pertain to
understanding science,
its methodology, observations, and theories. Scientific literacy is
chiefly concerned with an understanding of the
scientific method, units
and methods of measurement, empiricism and understanding of statistics in
particular correlations and qualitative versus quantitative observations
and aggregate statistics, as well as a basic understanding of core
scientific fields, such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology
and computation.
Scientifically Literate Person is
defined as one who has the capacity to understand
experiment and
reasoning as well as basic scientific
facts and their meaning.
Makes
informed decisions and
Communicates clearly using science.
Understands the fundamental concepts of
Earth’s many systems,
environmental and
social issues.
Knows how to find and assess scientifically credible information
about Earth.
Ask, find, or determine answers to
questions derived from
curiosity about everyday experiences.
Describes, explains, and predicts natural phenomena. Explains
phenomena scientifically – recognizes, offer and evaluate
explanations for a range of natural and technological phenomena.
Reads with Understanding of articles about science in the
popular press, and engages in social conversation about the
validity of the conclusions. Interprets
data and
evidence
scientifically –
analyzes and evaluates data, claims and
arguments
in a variety of representations and draw appropriate scientific
conclusions.
Identifies scientific issues underlying national and local
decisions and expresses positions that are scientifically and
technologically informed.
Evaluates the
quality of scientific information on the basis of
its source and the methods used to generate it. Evaluates and
designs scientific inquiry – describes and appraises scientific
investigations and proposes ways of addressing
questions
scientifically.
Poses and evaluates arguments based on evidence and to applies conclusions from such arguments appropriately.
Interpret data and evidence
scientifically – analyze and evaluate data, claims and arguments in a
variety of representations and draw appropriate scientific conclusions.
Understand, experiment, and reason as well as
interpret scientific facts
and their meaning. Ask, find, or determine answers to questions derived
from curiosity about everyday experiences. Describe, explain, and predict
natural phenomena. Read articles with understanding of science in the
popular press and engage in social conversation about the validity of the
conclusions. Identify scientific issues underlying national and local
decisions and express positions that are scientifically and
technologically informed. Evaluate the quality of scientific information
on the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it. Pose and
evaluate arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such
arguments appropriately understands the fundamental concepts of Earth’s
many systems. Knows how to find and assess scientifically credible
information about Earth. Communicates about Earth science in a meaningful
way. Is able to make informed and responsible decisions regarding Earth
and its resources.
Media Literacy -
Science Communication
-
Intelligence -
Articulate -
Literature -
Ethics
Philosophy of Science is a branch of
philosophy concerned
with the
foundations, methods, and implications of
science. The central questions of this study
concern
what qualifies as science, the
reliability of
scientific
theories, and the ultimate
purpose of science. This discipline
overlaps with
metaphysics,
ontology, and
epistemology, for example, when
it explores the relationship between science and
truth.
Science Types
Branches of Science (PDF)
- Over 550 Branches of Science so far.
Natural
Science Outline is a major branch of science that tries to explain,
and predict,
nature's phenomena based on empirical evidence. In natural
science,
hypothesis must be verified scientifically to be regarded as
scientific theory.
Validity,
accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring
quality control, such as
peer review and
repeatability of findings, are
amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science
can be broken into 2 main branches: life science, and physical science.
Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as
natural sciences.
Natural Sciences Academy
-
Naturalist (environment)
Physical
Science Outline is a branch of natural science that studies non-living
systems, in contrast to
Life Science. It in turn has many branches, each
referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical
sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat
arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study
biological phenomena and branches of chemistry such as organic
chemistry.
Protoscience involves the earliest eras of the history of science.
Involving the distinction between
hard and soft sciences, in which various sciences (or branches
thereof) are ranked according to methodological rigor.
Materials Science -
Do it
Yourself Science (DIY)
Earth Science Outline all-embracing term for the sciences related to
the planet
Earth. It is also known as
geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences, and is arguably a
special case in
planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet.
Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the
natural sciences. It in turn has many branches.
Geoscientist is a person
studying Earth or
other planets using Earth science.
Geologist is a scientist
who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes the
Earth and other terrestrial planets.
Forensic Science -
Junk Science
Formal Science
Outline are branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal
systems, such as those under the branches of: logic, mathematics, computer
science, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics. Unlike other
sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of
theories based on observations in the real world, but instead with the
properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules.
Social
Science Outline is the branch of science concerned with
society and human behaviors.
Applied
Science Outline is the branch of science that applies existing
scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including
inventions and other technological advancements. Science itself is the
systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of
testable explanations and predictions about the
universe.
Medicine is the science and practice
of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of
disease.
Clinical Science Journal offers
multi-disciplinary coverage and clinical perspectives to advance
human health.
Translational Science is a highly
interdisciplinary field, the primary goal of which is to coalesce assets
of various natures within the individual pillars in order to improve the
global healthcare system significantly. The goal of translational medicine
is to combine disciplines, resources, expertise, and techniques within
these pillars to promote enhancements in prevention, diagnosis, and
therapies. The term translational refers to the "translation" of basic
scientific findings in a laboratory setting into potential treatments for
disease.
Holism Science is an approach
to research that emphasizes the study of complex
systems which aims to gain
understanding of systems by dividing them into smaller composing elements
and gaining understanding of the system through understanding their
elemental properties.
Philosophy of Science.
Open Science is the movement to make scientific
research, data and dissemination accessible to all levels of an inquiring
society, amateur or professional. It encompasses practices such as
publishing
open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging
scientists to practice open notebook science, and generally making it
easier to publish and communicate scientific knowledge. The
European-funded project Facilitate Open Science Training for European
Research (FOSTER) has developed an open science taxonomy as an attempt to
map the open science field.
Hard Science and
Soft Science are
colloquial terms
used to compare scientific fields on the basis of perceived
methodological rigor, exactitude, and objectivity.
Roughly speaking, the natural sciences (e.g. biology, chemistry, physics)
are considered "hard", whereas the social sciences (e.g. economics,
psychology, sociology) are usually described as "soft". Precise
definitions vary, but features often cited as characteristic of hard
science include producing testable predictions, performing controlled
experiments, relying on quantifiable data and mathematical models, a high
degree of accuracy and objectivity, higher levels of consensus, faster
progression of the field, greater explanatory success, cumulativeness,
replicability, and generally applying a purer
form of the scientific method. A closely related idea (originating in the
nineteenth century with Auguste Comte) is that scientific disciplines can
be arranged into a hierarchy of hard to soft on the basis of factors such
as rigor, "development", and whether they are basic or applied. Some
philosophers and sociologists of science have questioned the relationship
between these characteristics and perceived hardness or softness. The more
"developed" hard sciences do not necessarily have a greater degree of
consensus or selectivity in accepting new results. Commonly cited
methodological differences are also not a reliable indicator. For example,
social sciences such as psychology and sociology use mathematical models
extensively, but are usually considered soft sciences. However, there are
some measurable differences between hard and soft sciences. For example,
hard sciences make more extensive use of graphs, and soft sciences are
more prone to a rapid turnover of buzzwords. The metaphor has been
criticized for unduly stigmatizing soft sciences, creating an unwarranted
imbalance in the public perception, funding, and recognition of different
fields.
Related
Subjects -
Chemistry -
Electricity -
Energy -
Computers -
Technology Education -
Math -
Engineering -
Physics -
Nano -
Biology -
Innovation
-
Evolution -
Collaboration -
Observations -
Hypothesis -
Problem Solving
-
Reasoning -
Decision Making -
Planning -
Information Literacy -
Knowledge Management
-
Management.
Research
Research is a systematic
investigation to establish
the
facts about
a particular subject or problem. To
inquire and ask
questions about something, and then
documenting the
answers and
information in order to
make a
report that other people can
understand and learn from. Research is a
search for
knowledge or to
gather
knowledge about
the nature of something, and then
organizing and
condensing
that knowledge into
testable laws and theories that
other people can
confirm and
validate. Research
is the ability to produce
solutions in some
problem domain.
To do
research
into questions posed by scientific
theories and
hypotheses. Research is
a form of
learning. Re-
search
is to
look again. To
experiment. To
prove
something.
Repeatable.
Applied Research is a
methodology used to solve a specific,
practical issue affecting an individual or group. This scientific method
of study and research is used in business, medicine, and education in
order to find solutions that may improve health, solve scientific problems
or develop new technology.
Applied Science
is the application of existing scientific knowledge to
practical applications, like technology or inventions.
Empirical Research is research using empirical
evidence. It
is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect
observation or
experience. Empiricism
values such research more than other kinds. Empirical
evidence is the
record
of one's direct observations or experiences that can be
analyzed
quantitatively or qualitatively. Through quantifying the evidence or
making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical
questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the
evidence or data collected. Research design varies by field
and by the question being
investigated. Many researchers combine
qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer
questions
which cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social
sciences and in education.
Exploratory Research is research conducted for a problem that has not
been clearly defined. It often occurs before we know enough to make
conceptual distinctions or to posit an explanatory relationship.
Exploratory research
develops concepts more clearly, established
priorities,
develops operational definitions and improve the final
research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best research
design, data-collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw
definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Given its fundamental
nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does
not actually exist.
Learning -
Discovery -
Curiosity -
Literature
Experimental Research is any research
conducted with a scientific approach, where a set of variables are kept
constant while the other set of variables are being measured as the
subject of experiment. There are times when you don't have enough data to
support your decisions.
Descriptive Research is a research method describing the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive
methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the
“why” of the research subject. Descriptive studies can be of several
types, namely, case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and
ecological studies. In the first three of these, data are collected on
individuals, whereas the last one uses aggregated data for groups.
Descriptive statistics are specific methods basically used to calculate,
describe, and summarize collected research data in a logical, meaningful,
and efficient way. Descriptive statistics are reported numerically in the
manuscript text and/or in its tables, or graphically in its figures. Brief
reports, including replication or null result studies of previously
reported findings, or a well-designed studies addressing questions of
limited scope. The subject matter includes treatments of genetic,
physiological, motivational, learning, perceptual, cognitive, and social
processes of both normal and abnormal kinds in human and animal subjects.
Creative Research
seeks to develop new ways of understanding, situating, and
reconfiguring
knowledge in the
telematic age.
Creativity.
Informatics is the science concerned
with
gathering,
manipulating,
storing,
retrieving, and
classifying
recorded information.
Informatics is the
processing of
information and the study and the practice of skills related to
information.
Scholarly Method is the body of
principles and
practices used by
scholars to
make their claims about the world as valid and trustworthy as
possible, and to make them known to the scholarly public. It is the
methods that systemically advance the teaching, research, and practice of
a given scholarly or academic field of study through rigorous inquiry.
Scholarship is noted by its significance to its particular profession, and
is creative, can be documented, can be replicated or elaborated, and can
be and is peer-reviewed through various methods.
ScholarAI is building
tools to help researchers and clinicians do
their best work with trustworthy AI by their sides. The
ScholarAI
GPT and the ScholarAI ChatGPT Plugin connects users to peer-reviewed
research articles.
Consensus is your
AI Research Assistant.
Search 200M academic papers from Consensus, get science-based answers, and
draft content with accurate citations.
Evaluation
is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and
significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist
an organization, program, project or any other intervention or initiative
to assess any aim, realisable concept/proposal, or any alternative, to
help in
decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or
value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action
that has been completed. The primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to
gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives, is to enable
reflection and assist in the identification of future change.
Third Party Testing (drugs) -
Peer Review
Diagnosis
is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon.
Diagnosis is used in many different disciplines with variations in the use
of logic, analytics, and experience to determine "cause and effect". In
systems engineering and computer science, it is typically used to
determine the causes of symptoms, mitigations, and solutions.
Dissection
is the dismembering of the body of a deceased animal or plant to study its
anatomical structure.
Autopsy
is used in pathology and forensic medicine to determine the cause of death
in humans. It is carried out by or demonstrated to biology and anatomy
students in high school and medical school. Less advanced courses
typically focus on smaller subjects, such as small formaldehyde-preserved
animals, while the more advanced courses normally use cadavers.
Consequently, dissection is typically conducted in a morgue or in an
anatomy lab.
Predictions -
Baseline
-
Physical Examination
Research Strategy is a
step-by-step plan of action
that gives direction to your thoughts and efforts, enabling you to conduct
research
systematically and
on
schedule to produce quality
results and
detailed reporting.
Research
Design is the
set of methods and
procedures used in
collecting and
analyzing measures of the
variables specified in the research problem research. The design of a
study defines the study type (descriptive,
correlation,
semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type
(e.g.,
descriptive-longitudinal
case study), research problem, hypotheses, independent and dependent
variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection
methods and a statistical analysis plan. A research design is a framework
that has been created to
find
answers to research questions.
Experiment Design.
Where to Start Research and When to Stop
Research. What happens when you think you found the answer? It's a
good idea to double-check your research by checking two or three sources
on the same topic. What are the signs that there may not be a clear-cut
solution to a problem? When research isn't yielding results you may need
to apply a variety of research techniques and also consult more resources.
Maybe you're not asking the right
questions?
Field Research is the
collection of information outside a
laboratory, library or workplace setting. The approaches and methods used
in field research vary across disciplines. For example, biologists who
conduct field research may simply
observe animals interacting with their
environments, whereas social scientists conducting field research may
interview or observe people in their natural environments to learn their
languages, folklore, and social structures.
Drug Research -
Goals of Research
(PDF)
Research Proposal is a
document proposing a research
project, generally in the sciences or academia, and generally constitutes
a request for sponsorship of that research. Proposals are evaluated on the
cost and potential impact of the proposed research, and on the soundness
of the proposed plan for carrying it out. Research proposals generally
address several key points: What research question(s) will be addressed,
and how they will be addressed. What cost and time will be required for
the research. What prior research has been done on the topic. How the
results of the research will be evaluated. How the research will benefit
the sponsoring organization and other parties.
Thesis.
Basic Research
is scientific research aimed to improve scientific theories for improved
understanding or
prediction of natural or other phenomena. Applied
research, in turn, uses scientific theories to develop technology or
techniques to intervene and alter natural or other phenomena.
Primary Research involves the collection of original
primary data by researchers. It is often undertaken after researchers have
gained some insight into an issue by reviewing secondary research or by
analyzing previously collected primary data. It can be accomplished
through various methods, including
questionnaires and telephone interviews in market research, or
experiments and direct
Observations in
the physical sciences, amongst others. The distinction between primary
research and secondary research is crucial among market-research
professionals.
Open Research
is to make
clear accounts of the methodology freely available via the internet, along
with any data or results extracted or derived from them. This permits a
massively distributed collaboration, and one in which anyone may
participate at any level of the project.
Open Source
Software.
Quantitative
Research is the systematic empirical
investigation of observable
phenomena via
statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The
objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and/or
hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The
process of
measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection between empirical
observation and mathematical
expression of quantitative relationships.
Qualitative Research relies on data obtained by the researcher from
first-hand observation, interviews,
questionnaires, focus groups, participant-observation, recordings made in
natural settings, documents, and artifacts. The data are generally
nonnumerical. Qualitative methods include ethnography, grounded theory,
discourse analysis, and interpretative phenomenological analysis.
Qualitative research methods have been used in sociology, anthropology,
political science, psychology, social work, and educational research.
Qualitative researchers study individuals' understanding of their social
reality.
Original Research is research that is
not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier
publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary
source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new
knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form
(e.g., summarized or classified).
Secondary
Research involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing
research. Secondary research is contrasted with primary research in that
primary research involves the generation of data, whereas secondary
research uses primary research sources as a source of data for analysis. A
notable marker of primary research is the inclusion of a "methods"
section, where the authors describe how the data was generated. Common
examples of secondary research include textbooks, encyclopedias, news
articles, review articles, and meta analyses. When conducting secondary
research, authors may draw data from published academic papers, government
documents, statistical databases, and historical records.
Case
Study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and
detailed
examination of a
subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions.
Social Research
is a research conducted by social scientists following a
systematic plan. Social
research methodologies can be classified as quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable
evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across
intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and
reliable general claims. Related to quantity. Qualitative designs
emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation,
communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress
contextual subjective accuracy over generality. Related to quality.
Participatory Action Research is an approach to research in
communities that emphasizes
participation
and action. It seeks to understand the world by trying to change it,
collaboratively and following reflection. PAR emphasizes
collective inquiry and
experimentation grounded in experience and
social history. Within a PAR process, "communities of inquiry and action
evolve and address questions and issues that are significant for those who
participate as co-researchers". PAR
contrasts with many research methods, which emphasize disinterested
researchers and reproducibility of findings. PAR practitioners make a
concerted effort to integrate three basic aspects of their work:
participation (life in society and
democracy), action (engagement with experience and history), and
research (soundness in thought and the growth of knowledge). "Action
unites, organically, with research" and collective processes of
self-investigation. The way each
component is actually understood and the relative emphasis it receives
varies nonetheless from one PAR theory and practice to another. This means
that PAR is not a monolithic body of ideas and methods but rather a
pluralistic orientation to knowledge making and
social change.
Action Research
seeks
transformative change through the
simultaneous process of taking action and doing research, which are linked
together by critical reflection. Action research is comparative research
on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and
research leading to social action that uses a spiral of steps, each of
which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about
the result of the action.
Active
Learning.
Ascertainment is the process of finding
something out for certain.
Think Tank is a
research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics
such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military,
technology, and culture. Most think tanks are non-governmental
organizations, but some are semi-autonomous agencies within government or
are associated with particular political parties, businesses or the
military. Think-tank funding often includes a combination of donations
from wealthy individuals and personal contributions, with many also
accepting government grants.
Cherry Picking Data -
Bias in
Research
Research Institute is an establishment founded for doing research.
Research institutes may specialize in basic research or may be oriented to
applied research. Although the term often implies natural science
research, there are also many research institutes in the social science as
well, especially for sociological and historical research purposes.
Research Institute is also known as research centre, research center or
research organization.
Postdoctoral Researcher is a person professionally conducting research
after the completion of their
doctoral studies
or a PhD. The ultimate goal of a postdoctoral research position is to
pursue additional research, training, or teaching in order to have better
skills to pursue a career in academia, research, or any other fields.
Research University is a university that is committed to research as a
central part of its mission. They can be public or private, and often have
well-known brand names. Undergraduate courses at many research
universities are often academic rather than vocational and may not prepare
students for particular careers, but many employers value degrees from
research universities because they teach fundamental life skills such as
critical thinking. Globally, research universities are predominantly
public universities, with notable exceptions being the United States and
Japan. A universities job is to train and graduate students. To train and
graduate PhD level students, research is absolutely required. Institutions
of higher education that are not research universities (or do not aspire
to that designation, such as liberal arts colleges) instead place more
emphasis on student instruction or other aspects of tertiary education,
and their faculty members are under less pressure to publish or perish.
Research conducted at America's research universities carries a dual
benefit. It creates the foundation for major advances in such areas as
health and medicine, communications, food, economics, energy, and national
security. And it helps educate students to be scientific leaders and
innovators. University research has a valuable long-term impact on
students. No matter which subject you study, your textbooks and resources
are usually informed by research carried out by academics. Research can
find answers to things that are unknown, filling gaps in knowledge and
changing the way that healthcare professionals work. Some of the common
aims for conducting research studies are to: Diagnose diseases and health
problems. The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing
knowledge through the development of scientific theories, concepts and
ideas. Best National Research Universities Top 100 Consensus Ranked
Schools 2021 are Yale University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Stanford University, Princeton University and Harvard University, just to
name a few.
Research and
Development are the exploratory activities undertaken by
researchers, engineers, scientists or
DIY
Citizens, who are developing new services or
products, or improving
existing
services or products.
Research and Development or
R & D is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or
governmental
innovation. Research
and development is a component of Innovation and is situated at the front
end of the Innovation life cycle. Innovation builds on R&D and includes
commercialization phases.
Research Institute is an establishment founded for doing research.
The world's total nominal R&D spending was approximately One Trillion
Dollars in 2010. The
US spent $456.1 billion
for research and development (R&D) in 2013.
Most scientific research is
funded by government grants. Spending on basic research by all U.S.
businesses nearly doubled between 2008 and 2014, from $13.9 billion to
$24.5 billion. According to the National Science Foundation, 29 percent of
federal R&D money goes to universities, 29 percent goes to industry, and
another 29 percent goes to researchers who work directly for federal
agencies. About 10 percent goes to federally funded labs operated by
private contractors. For the first time in the post–World War II era, the
federal government no longer funds a majority of the basic research
carried out in the United States. Data from ongoing surveys by the
National Science Foundation (NSF) show that federal agencies provided only
44% of the $86 billion spent on basic research in 2015. The federal share,
which topped 70% throughout the 1960s and ’70s, stood at 61% as recently
as 2004 before falling below 50% in 2013.
Drug company investment in basic research soared from $3 billion in
2008 to $8.1 billion in 2014.
Funding of Science is a term generally covering any funding for
scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology
and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a
competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated
and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run
by government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Most
research funding comes from two major sources, corporations (through
research and development departments) and government (primarily carried
out through universities and specialized government agencies; often known
as research councils). Some small amounts of scientific research are
carried out (or funded) by charitable foundations, especially in relation
to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria and AIDS.
According to OECD, more than 60% of research and development in scientific
and technical fields is carried out by industries, and 20% and 10%
respectively by universities and government.
Bias in Research.
Experiments
Experiment is a
procedure or
test carried out to support, refute, or
validate a
hypothesis. Experiments provide insight
into
cause-and-effect by demonstrating what
outcome occurs when a
particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and
scale, but always rely on
repeatable procedure and logical
analysis of the
results. There
also exists natural experimental studies.
Controlled Environment.
Empirical is something derived from experiment and
observation rather than theory.
Evidence -
Experience -
Determine -
Prove -
Test -
Analytical Chemistry -
FormulaScientific Experiment is
where a series of steps are developed to test a
hypothesis. The scientist must develop many important steps to design
a scientific experiment properly.
Inductive methods are used to determine a hypothesis, but
testing the hypothesis is done using
deductive methods.
Trial and Error is the process of experimenting with various testing
methods until something works or when results are successful. A
fundamental method of
problem solving
characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until
success, or until the agent stops trying.
Randomized Experiment
are the experiments that allow the greatest reliability and validity of
statistical estimates of treatment effects. Randomization-based inference
is especially important in experimental design and in
survey sampling.
Pilot Experiment is a small scale preliminary study
conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events,
and effect size (statistical variability) in an attempt to predict an
appropriate sample size and improve upon the study design prior to
performance of a full-scale research project. Pilot
Studies, therefore,
may not be appropriate for
case studies.
Quasi-Experiment is an empirical study used to
estimate the causal impact of an intervention on its target population
without random assignment. Quasi-experimental research shares similarities
with the traditional experimental design or randomized controlled trial,
but it specifically lacks the element of random assignment to treatment or
control. Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically allow the
researcher to control the assignment to the treatment condition, but using
some criterion other than random assignment (e.g., an eligibility cutoff
mark).
Double Blind
Experiment
Design of Experiments
is the design of any task that aims to describe or explain the variation
of
information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the
variation. The term is generally associated with true experiments in which
the design introduces conditions that directly affect the variation, but
may also refer to the design of quasi-experiments, in which natural
conditions that influence the variation are selected for
observation. In its simplest form, an
experiment aims at predicting the outcome by introducing a change of the
preconditions, which is represented by one or more independent variables,
also referred to as "input variables" or "predictor variables." The change
in one or more independent variables is generally hypothesized to result
in a change in one or more dependent variables, also referred to as
"output variables" or "response variables." The experimental design may
also identify control variables that must be held constant to prevent
external factors from affecting the results. Experimental design involves
not only the selection of suitable independent, dependent, and control
variables, but planning the delivery of the experiment under statistically
optimal conditions given the constraints of available resources. There are
multiple approaches for determining the set of design points (unique
combinations of the settings of the independent variables) to be used in
the experiment. Main concerns in experimental design include the
establishment of validity, reliability, and replicability. For example,
these concerns can be partially addressed by carefully choosing the
independent variable, reducing the risk of measurement error, and ensuring
that the documentation of the method is sufficiently detailed. Related
concerns include achieving appropriate levels of statistical power and
sensitivity. Correctly designed experiments advance knowledge in the
natural and social sciences and engineering. Other applications include
marketing and policy making. The study of the design of experiments is an
important topic in metascience.
Glossary of Experimental Design (wiki) -
Research Design -
Research Bias.
Natural
Experiment is an
empirical
study in which individuals (or clusters of individuals) exposed to the
experimental and control conditions are determined by nature or by other
factors outside the control of the investigators, but the process
governing the exposures arguably resembles random assignment. Thus,
natural experiments are observational studies and are not controlled in
the traditional sense of a
randomized experiment. Natural experiments are most useful when there
has been a clearly defined exposure involving a well defined subpopulation
(and the absence of exposure in a similar subpopulation) such that changes
in outcomes may be plausibly attributed to the exposure. In this sense,
the difference between a natural experiment and a non-experimental
observational study is that the
former includes a comparison of conditions that pave the way for causal
inference, but the latter does not. Natural experiments are employed as
study designs when controlled experimentation is extremely difficult to
implement or unethical, such as in several research areas addressed by
epidemiology (like evaluating the health impact of varying degrees of
exposure to ionizing radiation in people living near Hiroshima at the time
of the atomic blast) and economics (like estimating the economic return on
amount of schooling in US adults).
Experimentalist is the
philosophical belief that the way to
truth is through experiments and empiricism. It is also associated with
instrumentalism, the belief that truth should be evaluated based upon its
demonstrated
usefulness. Less formally, artists often pursue their visions
through trial and
error; this form of experimentalism has been practiced
in every field, from music to film and from literature to theatre.
Thought Experiment considers some
hypothesis, theory, or
principle for the
purpose of thinking through its
consequences. Given the
structure of the experiment, it may not be possible to perform it, and
even if it could be performed, there need not be an intention to perform
it. The common goal of a thought experiment is to explore the potential
consequences of the principle in
question: "A thought
experiment is a device with which one performs an intentional, structured
process of intellectual deliberation in order to
speculate, within a specifiable problem domain, about potential
consequents (or antecedents) for a designated antecedent (or
consequent)".
Intuition Pump is a thought experiment structured to allow the thinker
to use their intuition to develop an answer to a problem.
Empiricism is a
theory that states that
knowledge comes only or primarily from
Sensory
Experience. One of several
views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with
rationalism and skepticism, empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical
evidence in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or
traditions.
Constructivist Epistemology is a branch in philosophy of
science maintaining that scientific knowledge is constructed by the
scientific community, who seek to
Measure
and construct models of the natural world. Natural science therefore
consists of mental constructs that aim to explain sensory experience (and
measurements).
Scientific Control is an experiment or
observation designed to minimize the
effects of
variables other than the independent variable. This increases the
reliability of the results, often through a
comparison between control measurements and the other measurements.
Scientific controls are a part of the
scientific method.
AI could run a million microbial experiments per year. Automation
uncovers combinations of amino acids that feed two bacterial species and
could tell us much more about the 90% of bacteria that humans have hardly
studied. An artificial intelligence system enables robots to conduct
autonomous scientific experiments -- as many as 10,000 per day --
potentially driving a drastic leap forward in the pace of discovery in
areas from medicine to agriculture to environmental science.
Testing
Testing is the act of subjecting to
experimental test in order to determine how well
something works. To take
measures to check
the
quality,
performance, or
reliability of something, especially before
putting it into widespread use or practice.
Test the
hypothesis by performing an
experiment and
collecting data in a
reproducible manner.
Analyze the
data and results. An
examination of the
characteristics of something.
Third Party Testing -
Stress Testing -
Field Test -
Repeatable -
Proof -
Results
Concept Testing is the
process of using
surveys and sometimes
qualitative methods, to evaluate
consumer acceptance of a new product idea
prior to the introduction of a product to the market. It is important not
to confuse concept testing with advertising testing,
brand testing and
packaging testing; as is sometimes done.
Concept testing focuses on the
basic product idea, without the embellishments and puffery inherent in
advertising.
Proof of Concept.
Scientific Testing involves figuring out
what a person would expect to
observe
if an idea were correct and comparing that expectation to what we actually
observe.
Software Testing
(computers) -
Black Box Testing
A/B Testing is a way to
compare two versions of a single
variable,
typically by
testing a subject's
response to variable A against variable B, and determining which of the
two variables is more
effective.
A/B testing is a
randomized experiment with two
variants, A and B, which are the
control and variation in the
controlled
experiment. A/B testing is a form of statistical hypothesis testing with
two variants leading to the technical term, two-sample
hypothesis testing,
used in the field of
statistics. A/B
testing is sometimes called
split testing,
which is comparing two versions of a web page to see which one performs
better.
Side by Side Comparisons -
Pros and Cons -
Conformance Testing -
Development
Multivariate Testing
is hypothesis
testing in the context of multivariate
statistics.
Nondestructive Testing is a wide group of
analysis
techniques used in science and technology industry to
evaluate the
properties of a
material, component or system without causing damage.
Diagnostic Test is a kind of
medical procedure
performed to detect, diagnose, or monitor
diseases, disease processes,
susceptibility, and determine a course of treatment. It is related to
clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics, and the procedures are
typically performed in a medical laboratory.
Testing Flaws -
Calibration
Test
Design is the activity of deriving and specifying test cases from test
conditions to test software. Good test design supports: defining and
improving quality related processes and procedures (quality assurance);
evaluating the quality of the product with regards to customer
expectations and needs (quality control); finding defects in the product
(software testing). The essential prerequisites of test design are:
Appropriate specification (test bases).
Risk and complexity
analysis. Historical data of your previous developments (if exists). The
test bases, such as requirements or user stories, determine what should be
tested (test objects and test conditions). The test bases involves some
test design techniques to be used or not to be used.
Risk analysis is
inevitable to decide the thoroughness of testing. The more
risk the usage of the
function/object has, the more thorough the testing that is needed. The
same can be said for complexity. Risk and complexity analysis determines
the test design techniques to be applied for a given specification.
Historical data of your previous developments help setting the best set of
test design techniques to reach a cost optimum and high quality together.
In lack of historical data some assumptions can be made, which should be
refined for subsequent projects.
Group Testing is any procedure that breaks up the task of identifying
certain objects into tests on groups of items, rather than on individual
ones.
Statistical Hypothesis Testing is a hypothesis that is testable on the
basis of
observing a
process that is modeled via a set of random
variables.
Debunking -
Refuting -
Scrutiny -
Peer Review
Sanity Check is a basic test to quickly evaluate whether a claim or
the result of a calculation can possibly be true. It is a simple check to
see if the produced material is rational (that the material's creator was
thinking rationally, applying sanity). The point of a sanity test is to
rule out certain classes of obviously false results, not to catch every
possible error. A rule-of-thumb or back-of-the-envelope calculation may be
checked to perform the test. The advantage of a performing an initial
sanity test is that of speedily evaluating basic function.
Evaluation
is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and
significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards.
Procedure.
Checksum
is a small-sized datum derived from a block of digital data for the
purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during its
transmission or storage. By themselves, checksums are often used to
verify data
integrity but are not relied upon to verify data authenticity.
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a
primary source.
Research comprises of creative work undertaken on a systematic
basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of
humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to
devise new applications.
Secondary Data refers to data that was
collected by someone other than the user.
Analytics is the discovery,
interpretation, and communication
of meaningful
patterns
in data.
Data Analysis is a process of inspecting, cleaning,
transforming, and modeling
Data with the goal of discovering useful
information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
Data
analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse
techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and
social science domains.
Evidence
is anything presented in support of an assertion.
Proof by
Contradiction is a form of
proof that establishes the truth or
validity of a
proposition by first assuming that the
opposite proposition is true, and then shows that such an assumption leads
to a contradiction. Proof by
contradiction is also known as indirect proof, proof by assuming the
opposite.
Reductio ad absurdum is a form of argument that attempts to establish
a claim by showing that the opposite scenario would lead to absurdity or
contradiction.
Proof Reading -
Meanings
Enthymeme
is the body of
proof or the strongest of rhetorical proofs.
Publish Results (Feedback - Opinions)
-
Peer Review
Systematic
Review is a type of literature review that collects and critically
analyzes multiple research studies or papers. A review of existing studies
is often quicker and cheaper than embarking on a new study. Researchers
use methods that are selected before one or more research questions are
formulated, and then they aim to find and analyze studies that relate to
and answer those questions. Systematic reviews of randomized controlled
trials are key in the practice of evidence-based medicine.
Retest (Confirm Hypothesis)
Yes or No?
Interpret the Data and Draw Conclusions that may serve as a
starting point for new Hypothesis.
Fact Checker is the act of
checking factual assertions in
non-fictional text in order to determine the
veracity and correctness of
the factual statements in the text. This may be done either before (ante
hoc) or after (post hoc) the text has been published or otherwise
disseminated.
Repeatable - Reproducibility
Reproducibility the ability to be reproduced or
copied. the extent to
which
consistent results are obtained when an
experiment is repeated.
Reproducibility is the closeness of the
agreement between the results of
measurements of the same measure and carried out with
same methodology
described in the corresponding scientific
evidence.
Example by
demonstration.
Reproducibility is a
scientific method that means
that a result obtained by an
experiment or
observational study should be
achieved again with a high degree of
agreement when the
study is replicated with the same
methodology by different researchers. Only after one or several such
successful replications should a result be recognized as scientific
knowledge.
Prove.
Repeatability or test–retest
reliability is the
variation in
measurements taken by a single person or
instrument on the
same item, under the
same conditions, and in a short period of time. A
less-than-
perfect test–retest reliability causes test–retest variability.
Such variability can be caused by, for example,
intra-individual variability and
intra-observer variability. A measurement may be said to be repeatable
when this variation is smaller than a pre-determined acceptance criterion.
Replication is the ability of an entire
experiment or study
to be duplicated, either by the same
researcher or by someone else working
independently. Reproducing an experiment is called replicating it.
Reproducibility is one of the main principles of the scientific method.
Reliable -
Consistent -
Trusting -
Ethical -
Proof -
Validation -
Efficacy -
Comparative Effectiveness Research
-
Peer Reviewed
Replication in
statistics is not
the same as
repeated measurements of the same item. They are dealt with
differently in statistical experimental design and data analysis. For
proper sampling, a process or batch of
products should be in reasonable statistical control; inherent
random
variation is present but variation due to assignable (special) causes
is not. Evaluation or
testing of a single item does
not allow for item-to-item variation and may not represent the batch or
process. Replication is needed to account for this variation among items
and treatments. As an example, consider a continuous process which
produces items. Batches of items are then processed or treated. Finally,
tests or
measurements are conducted.
Several options might be available to obtain ten test values. Some
possibilities are: One finished and treated item might be measured
repeatedly to obtain ten test results. Only one item was measured so there
is no replication. The repeated measurements help identify observational
error. Ten finished and treated items might be taken from a batch and each
measured once. This is not full replication because the ten samples are
not random and not representative of the continuous nor batch processing.
Five items are taken from the continuous process based on sound
statistical sampling. These are processed in a batch and tested twice
each. This includes replication of initial samples but does not allow for
batch-to-batch variation in processing. The repeated tests on each provide
some measure and control of testing error. Five items are taken from the
continuous process based on sound statistical sampling. These are
processed in five different batches and tested twice each. This plan
includes proper replication of initial samples and also includes
batch-to-batch variation. The repeated tests on each provide some measure
and control of testing error. Each option would call for different data
analysis methods and yield different conclusions.
Third Party Testing -
Consensus (collaborative thinking) -
Precedent -
Literature
Community-developed guidelines for publishing images help address
reproducibility problem in science. Images created by a plethora of
high-tech instruments are widely found in scientific research as both
illustrations and sources of data. Recent advancements in light (or
optical) microscopy in particular have enabled sensitive, fast, and
high-resolution imaging of diverse samples, making image use in scientific
papers more popular than ever.
Peer
Review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with
similar competencies as the
producers of the work (peers). It functions as a form of
self-regulation by qualified
members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review methods are
used to maintain
quality standards, improve
performance, and provide credibility.
Analytical Quality Control refers to all those processes and
procedures designed to ensure that the results of laboratory analysis are
consistent,
comparable, accurate and within specified limits of
precision. Constituents submitted to the analytical laboratory must be
accurately described to avoid faulty interpretations, approximations, or
incorrect results. The qualitative and quantitative data generated from
the laboratory can then be used for decision making. In the chemical
sense, quantitative analysis refers to the measurement of the amount or
concentration of an element or chemical compound in a matrix that differs
from the element or compound. Fields such as industry, medicine, and law
enforcement can make use of AQC.
Good
Laboratory Practice refers to a quality system of management controls
for research laboratories and organizations to ensure the uniformity,
consistency, reliability,
reproducibility, quality, and integrity of
chemical (including pharmaceuticals) non-clinical safety tests; from physio-chemical properties through acute to chronic
toxicity tests.
Operational Definition is used in defining the terms of a
process (or set of validation tests) needed to
determine the nature of an item or phenomenon (a variable, term, or
object) and its properties such as duration, quantity, extension in space,
chemical composition, etc. Since the degree of operationalization can vary
itself, it can result in a more or less operational definition. The
procedures included in definitions should be
repeatable by anyone or at least by peers.
"To see what others have
seen, but think what no one else is thinking. Genius is seeing what
everyone else sees and
thinking what no one
else has thought".
Consistency in negotiation is the need to be
consistent with prior
acts and statements, as well as procedures.
Consistency is one
that does not contain a
contradiction.
Symmetry -
Conformity -
Synchronicity
Odds (approximations)
Falsifiability
if there is the inherent possibility that they can be proven false. They
are falsifiable if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an
argument which could negate them. In this sense, falsify is synonymous
with nullify, meaning to invalidate or "show to be false".
Fallacy.
Simplicity -
Trends (statistics)
Please note that scientific methods will vary depending on the
subject that you are analyzing.
The procedures, techniques and equipment used in testing and
verifying information will vary.
Depending on what you're testing, some methods are more
dependable then other methods,
so there could be several variables that need to be defined
first.
Law of Large Numbers is a theorem that describes the
result of performing the same
experiment a large number of times.
According to the law, the average of the results obtained from a large
number of trials should be close to the expected value, and will tend to
become closer as more
Trials are
performed.
Computation
is any type of calculation that follows a well-defined model understood
and expressed as, for example, an algorithm.
Standard
Deviation is a measure that is used to quantify the amount
of variation or dispersion of a set of data values. A low standard
deviation indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean
(also called the expected value) of the set, while a high standard
deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a wider range
of values.
Parameters
is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a
particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.).
That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or
critical, when identifying the system, or when
evaluating its performance,
status, condition, etc.
Constructing a Multiple Baseline Graph using MS Excel and Word (youtube)
- (Standard
Excel Spreadsheets have 1,048,576 Rows).
Scientific Visualization is the visualization of
three-dimensional phenomena (architectural, meteorological, medical,
biological, etc.), where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of
volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps with a
dynamic (time) component". It is also considered a subset of computer
graphics, a branch of computer science. The purpose of scientific
visualization is to graphically illustrate scientific data to enable
scientists to understand, illustrate, and glean insight from their data.
Knowledge Visualization.
Correspondence Analysis a means of displaying or
summarising a set of data in two-dimensional graphical form.
Scientific Poster Presentation Sample (image)
Mind Maps -
Visual Reorientations
Scientific Modeling is a scientific activity, the
aim of which is to make a particular part or feature of the world easier
to understand, define, quantify, visualize, or simulate by referencing it
to existing and usually commonly accepted knowledge. It requires selecting
and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then
using different types of models for different aims, such as conceptual
models to better understand, operational models to operationalize,
mathematical models to quantify, and graphical models to visualize the
subject.
Modelling is an essential
and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines have their own ideas
about specific types of modelling. There is also an increasing attention
to scientific modelling in fields such as science education, philosophy of
science, systems theory, and knowledge visualization. There is growing
collection of methods, techniques and meta-theory about all kinds of
specialized scientific modelling.
Evidence
Evidence
is
testimony from
expert
witnesses along with
documentary evidence,
physical evidence,
facts and
proof.
Measurements -
Repeatable
-
Experiments -
Research -
Consensus -
Expert Witness -
Determine -
Calibration
Empirical
Evidence is the
knowledge or source of
knowledge acquired by means of
the
senses, particularly
by
observation and
experimentation.
Cause-and-Effect
-
Testing -
Process
Scientific
Evidence is evidence which serves to either support or counter a
scientific
theory or hypothesis. Such evidence is expected to be empirical
evidence and
interpretation in accordance with
scientific method. Standards for scientific evidence vary according to
the field of inquiry, but the strength of scientific evidence is generally
based on the
results of
statistical
analysis and the strength of scientific controls.
Bias in Research -
Junk Science
Real Evidence
is any material object that proves a fact in issue based on the object's
demonstrable physical characteristics.
Determine is to establish something after a
calculation,
investigation,
experiment, survey, or
study. Decide upon definitely; give a
value. Reach, make, or come to a decision about something. Settle
conclusively; come to terms. Find out, learn, or determine with certainty,
usually by making an inquiry or other effort.
Criteria is a principle or
standard by which something may be judged or
decided. A basis for
comparison; a
reference point against which
other things can be
evaluated. The ideal in terms of which something can be
judged.
Precedent.
Evidence in law encompasses the
rules and
legal principles that govern the proof of facts in a legal proceeding.
These rules determine what evidence must or must not be considered by the
trier of fact in reaching its
decision. The trier of fact is a judge in
bench trials, or the jury in any cases involving a
jury. The law of evidence is also concerned
with the quantum (amount), quality, and type of proof needed to prevail in
litigation. The rules vary depending upon whether the venue is a criminal
court, civil court, or family court, and they vary by jurisdiction.
Federal Rules of Evidence governs the proof of
facts and the
inferences flowing from such facts during the trial of civil and criminal
lawsuits. Rules of evidence is to regulate the evidence that the jury may
use to reach a verdict. the Rules center on a few basic ideas – relevance,
unfair surprise, efficiency, reliability, and overall fairness of the
adversary process. much evidence that is repetitive, inflammatory, or
unnecessarily confusing.
Biological Evidence
refers to samples of
biological material—such
as hair, tissue, bones, teeth, blood, semen, or other bodily fluids—or to
evidence items containing biological material (
DNA
Initiative 2012).
Health Questions.
Direct Evidence supports the
truth of an assertion directly without an
intervening
inference. Direct
evidence in criminal law is an assertion
of guilt or of innocence.
Warrant is to show something to be
reasonable or to provide
adequate
ground for a
theory. To stand behind and guarantee the quality,
accuracy, or the
condition of something. Warrant can also mean a formal
and
explicit approval from a court commanding police to perform specified
acts.
Admissible Evidence is any testimonial, documentary, or
tangible evidence that
may be introduced to a
fact finder—usually a judge
or
jury—to establish or to bolster a point put forth by a party to the
proceeding. For evidence to be admissible, it must be
relevant, without
being
unfairly prejudicial, and it must have some indicia of reliability.
The general rule in evidence is that all relevant evidence is admissible
and all irrelevant evidence is inadmissible.
Investigation.
Circumstantial is indirectly
suggesting something but not
directly
proving it.
Hearsay.
Circumstantial Evidence is evidence that relies on an inference to
connect it to a conclusion of fact—like a fingerprint at the scene of a
crime. Circumstantial evidence consists of a
fact or set of
facts which, if proven,
may support the creation of an
inference that the matter asserted is
true.
Personal Testimony -
Assumptions
-
Invalid Arguments -
Bias in ResearchIndication is something that serves to
indicate or suggest.
Clue
is evidence that helps to
solve a problem.
Anecdotal
Evidence is evidence from
anecdotes, i.e.,
evidence collected in a
casual or informal manner and relying heavily or entirely on
personal testimony. When compared to
other types of evidence,
anecdotal evidence is generally regarded as limited in value due to a
number of potential weaknesses, but may be considered within the scope of
scientific method as some anecdotal evidence can be both empirical and
verifiable, e.g. in the use of case studies in medicine. Other anecdotal
evidence, however, does not qualify as scientific evidence, because its
nature prevents it from being
investigated by the scientific method.
False Evidence is information
created or obtained illegally, to sway
the verdict in a court case.
Falsified evidence could be created by either
side in a case (including the police/prosecution in a criminal case), or
by someone sympathetic to either side. Misleading by suppressing evidence
can also be considered a form of false evidence (by omission), however, in
some cases, suppressed evidence is excluded because it cannot be proved
the accused was aware of the items found or of their location.
False Positive is a test result which
incorrectly indicates that a particular condition or attribute is present.
Contradiction.
Forensics
Forensic Science
collects, preserves, and
analyzes scientific
evidence during the course of
an
investigation. While some
forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the
evidence themselves, others occupy a
laboratory role, performing
Analysis on objects brought to
them by other individuals. Forensic Science is the application of science to
criminal and
civil laws, mainly—on the criminal
side—during criminal investigation, as governed by the legal standards of
admissible evidence and criminal procedure. Forensic scientists collect,
preserve, and
analyze scientific
evidence during the course of an
investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the
crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role,
performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals.
Blackstone
Discovery.
Forensic Rhetoric encompasses any
discussion of past action including legal discourse—the primary
setting for the emergence of rhetoric as a discipline and theory.
Junk Science -
Dry Labbing
Hair and Fiber Evidence. Fibers are
considered a form of trace evidence that can be transferred from the
clothing of a suspect to the clothing of a victim during the commission of
a crime.
Fibers can also transfer from a fabric source such as a carpet,
bed, or furniture at a crime scene. Hair is considered class evidence when
the follicle is not attached because the follicle is the part that
contains DNA. When the follicle is attached, it is considered individual
evidence. Hair and fibre are two of the most important resources in
Forensic Science and are often responsible for
providing valuable clues as to the identity of an assailant or attacker.
The discovery of hair on the body of a victim or on the clothes of someone
who has been the victim of an assault can often be used to determine race
and sex. It can also be used to extrapolate DNA for comparison. Although
hair is classified as benign dead matter it still contains DNA even though
the hair itself is not actually a living organism but is merely pushed
through the follicles of the scalp, arms, legs or any other part of the
anatomy where hair is found. Fibres too are an important discovery and can
go some way to determining what an attacker or killer was wearing at the
time of the incident. Many forensic scientists use fibres as a means of
determining the nature of the item worn and in some instances can be as
precise as to identify the make of the garment and thus the manufacturer.
In some instances this technique is so successful that garments that are
rare or indeed specially made can be identified and thus a list of
possible suspects drawn up simply by the number of units sold.
Trace Evidence
is created when objects make contact. The material is often transferred by
heat or induced by contact friction.
Trace
Evidence Unit identifies and compares specific types of trace
materials that could be transferred during the commission of a violent
crime. These trace materials include human hair, animal hair, textile
fibers and fabric, rope, soil, glass, and building materials.
Forensic Photography is an activity that records the initial
appearance of the crime scene and physical evidence, in order to provide a
permanent record for the courts. Crime scene photography differs from
other variations of
photography because
crime scene photographers usually have a very specific purpose for
capturing each image.
Forensic Chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield,
forensic toxicology, in a legal setting. A forensic chemist can assist in
the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene.
Specialists in this field have a wide array of methods and instruments to
help identify unknown substances. These include high-performance liquid
chromatography, gas chromatography-
mass
spectrometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy, and thin layer chromatography. The range of
different methods is important due to the destructive nature of some
instruments and the number of possible unknown substances that can be
found at a scene. Forensic chemists
prefer using
nondestructive methods first, to preserve evidence and to determine
which destructive methods will produce the best results.
Carbon Dating -
Fossil Records
Traffic Collision Reconstruction is the scientific process of
investigating, analyzing, and drawing conclusions about the
causes and
events during a vehicle collision.
Reconstructionists are
employed to conduct in-depth collision analysis and reconstruction to
identify the collision causation and contributing factors in different
types of collisions, including the role of the driver(s), vehicle(s),
roadway and the environment. The laws of physics and engineering
principles such as the conservation of linear momentum, work-energy
methods, and kinematics are the basis for these analyses and may make use
of software to calculate useful quantities. The accident reconstruction
provides rigorous analysis that an expert witnesses can present at trial.
Accident reconstructions are done in cases involving fatalities, and often
when personal injury is involved. Results from accident reconstructions
are also useful in developing recommendations for making roads and
highways safer, as well as improving safety aspects of motor vehicle
designs. These reconstructions are often conducted by forensic engineers,
specialized units in law enforcement agencies, or private consultants.
Event Data Recorder is a device installed in some automobiles to
record information related to vehicle
crashes or accidents. It is similar to an
accident
data recorder and is sometimes referred to informally as an
automotive "
black box", which is the common
nickname for flight recorders. In the USA EDRs must meet federal
standards, as described within the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. The
black box of in-vehicle data recorders terms are larger as they can refer
to EDR or to Journey data recorders such as Digital tachograph in Europe
or Electronic logging device in the USA. In modern diesel trucks, EDRs are
triggered by electronically sensed problems in the engine (often called
faults), or a sudden change in wheel speed. One or more of these
conditions may occur because of an accident. Information from these
devices can be collected after a crash and analyzed to help determine what
the vehicles were doing before, during and after the crash or event. The
term generally refers to a simple, tamper-proof, read-write memory device.
MVEDR is an acronym for Motor Vehicle Event Data Recorder, also commonly
known as EDR or Vehicle Black Box, is similar to an Event data recorder or
an accident data recorder. Some EDRs continuously record data, overwriting
the previous few minutes until a crash stops them, and others are
activated by crash-like events (such as sudden changes in velocity) and
may continue to record until the accident is over, or until the recording
time is expired.
EDRs may record a wide range of
data elements, potentially including whether the brakes were
applied, the speed at the time of impact, the steering angle, and whether
seat belt circuits were shown as "Buckled" or "Unbuckled" at the time of
the crash. Current EDRs store the information internally on an EEPROM
until recovered from the module. Some vehicles have communications systems
(such as GM's OnStar system) that may transmit some data, such as an alert
that the airbags have been deployed, to a remote location. Most EDRs in
automobiles and light trucks are part of the restraint system control
module, which senses impact accelerations and determines what restraints
(airbags and/or seatbelt tensioners) to deploy. After the deployment (or
non-deployment) decisions are made, and if there is still power available,
the data are written to memory. The data downloaded from older EDRs
usually contain 6 to 8 pages of information, though many newer systems
include many more data elements and require more pages, depending on the
make/model/year of the vehicle being evaluated. Depending on the type of
EDR, it may contain either a deployment file or a non-deployment file or
sometimes both, depending on the circumstances of the collisions and the
time interval between them, among other things.
Accident Data Recorder is an independent electronic device that
records before, during, and after a traffic accident relevant data and
thus resembles a flight recorder.
Flight Recorder is an electronic recording device placed in an
aircraft for the purpose of facilitating the investigation of
aviation accidents
and incidents. Flight recorders are also known by the misnomer
black box—they are, in fact, painted bright
orange in color to aid in their recovery after accidents. There are two
different flight recorder devices: the flight data recorder preserves the
recent history of the flight through the recording of dozens of parameters
collected several times per second; the cockpit voice recorder preserves
the recent history of the sounds in the cockpit, including the
conversation of the pilots. The two devices may be combined into a single
unit. Together, the FDR and CVR objectively document the aircraft's flight
history, which may assist in any later investigation. The two flight
recorders are required by international regulation, overseen by the
International Civil Aviation Organization, to be capable of surviving the
conditions likely to be encountered in a severe aircraft accident. For
this reason, they are typically specified to withstand an impact of 3400 g
and temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), as required by EUROCAE
ED-112. They have been a mandatory requirement in commercial aircraft in
the United States since 1967. After the unexplained disappearance of
Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 in 2014, commentators have called for live
streaming of data to the ground, as well as extending the battery life of
the underwater locator beacons.
Data
Logger is an electronic device that
records data over time
or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor or
via external instruments and sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they
are based on a digital processor (or computer), and called digital data
loggers (DDL). They generally are small, battery powered, portable, and
equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory for data storage, and
sensors. Some data loggers interface with a personal computer, and use
software to activate the data logger and view and analyze the collected
data, while others have a local interface device (keypad, LCD) and can be
used as a stand-alone device. Data loggers vary between general purpose
types for a range of measurement applications to very specific devices for
measuring in one environment or application type only. It is common for
general purpose types to be programmable; however, many remain as static
machines with only a limited number or no changeable parameters.
Electronic data loggers have replaced chart recorders in many
applications. One of the primary benefits of using data loggers is the
ability to automatically collect data on a 24-hour basis. Upon activation,
data loggers are typically deployed and left unattended to measure and
record information for the duration of the monitoring period. This allows
for a comprehensive, accurate picture of the environmental conditions
being monitored, such as air temperature and relative humidity. The cost
of data loggers has been declining over the years as technology improves
and costs are reduced. Simple single channel data loggers cost as little
as $25. More complicated loggers may costs hundreds or thousands of
dollars.
Forensic Engineering has been defined as "
the
investigation of failures - ranging from serviceability to
catastrophic - which may lead to legal activity, including both civil and
criminal". It includes the
investigation
of materials, products,
structures
or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing
personal injury, damage to property or economic loss. The consequences of
failure may give rise to action under either criminal or civil law
including but not limited to health and safety legislation, the laws of
contract and/or product liability and the laws of tort. The field also
deals with retracing processes and
procedures leading to accidents in
operation of vehicles or machinery. Generally, the purpose of a forensic
engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a
view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court
in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation
of intellectual property claims, especially patents.
Failure Analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing data to
determine the cause of a failure, often
with the goal of determining corrective actions or liability. According to
Bloch and Geitner, machinery failures reveal a reaction chain of
cause and
effect… usually a
deficiency commonly referred to as the symptom…”. failure analysis can
save money, lives, and resources if done correctly and acted upon. It is
an important discipline in many branches of manufacturing industry, such
as the electronics industry, where it is a vital tool used in the
development of new products and for the improvement of existing products.
The failure analysis process relies on collecting failed components for
subsequent examination of the cause or causes of failure using a wide
array of methods, especially microscopy and spectroscopy.
Nondestructive testing methods (such as industrial computed tomography
scanning) are valuable because the failed products are unaffected by
analysis, so inspection sometimes starts using these methods.
Computational Criminology uses computing science methods to formally
define criminology concepts, improve our understanding of complex
phenomena, and generate solutions for related problems.
Random Coincidence -
Procedures
Exception to the Rule or
Exception that proves the rule is a
saying that does not mean that an exception demonstrates a rule to be
true or to exist, but that may only test the rule. It is usually used when
an exception to a rule has been believed to be identified.
Junk Science
Junk Science is used to describe
misleading scientific data, research, or
analysis that is intended to deceive, or is outright
fraudulent. The phrase
usually conveys that the research has been
driven by
political,
ideological,
financial, or otherwise
unscientific motives. In some contexts, junk science is an
invalid argument when described
as "
sound
science" or "
solid science" that favors
one's own point of view. Junk science has been criticized for
undermining
public trust in
real science.
The phrase junk science was popularized in the 1990s in relation
to
expert testimony in
civil litigation. More recently, invoking
the concept has been a tactic to
criticize research on the harmful
environmental or public health effects of corporate activities, and
occasionally in response to such criticism. Author Dan Agin in his book
Junk Science harshly criticized those who deny the basic premise of global
warming.
Fraudulent Research -
Disinformation -
Invalid Argument -
Roundabout Speech -
Fake News -
Half Truth -
Trick Questions -
Skepticism -
Metabunk -
Mick
West -
Fallacies -
Pseudoscience -
Science Fraud
Pathological Science is an area of research where "people
are
tricked into
false results.
Junk Science and the American Criminal Justice System. This
fascinating book by Innocence Project attorney M. Chris Fabricant shows
how junk science in our criminal justice system is used to convict the
innocent. (amazon).
How Junk Science
convicted an Innocent Man | Part 2 (youtube) - A man was wrongly
convicted of murder on the basis of forensic
bite mark evidence, which is not scientifically proven. But that
doesn't stop ignorant people from claiming that a bite mark is an accurate
match, or does it stop an ignorant judge from allowing this type of
unproven evidence in a court of law.
Anecdotal Evidence is evidence based only on
personal observation,
collected in a casual or
non-systematic manner.
Anecdotal reports are often called a testimonial.
Testimonial consists of a person's written or spoken statement
extolling the virtue of a product, such as an
endorsement or paid
sponsorship.
Expert witness can be bought
and manipulated by money.
Argument from Ignorance –
Informal
Fallacy argument that uses
faulty reasoning -
Confirmation Bias –
Bias
confirming existing attitudes -
Correlation does not imply Causation –
Faulty Generalization –
Conclusion made on the basis of one or few instances of a phenomenon.
Hasty Generalization – Conclusion made on the basis of one or few
instances of a phenomenon.
Agrippa Trilemma argues that we
have no reason to believe that P for any P. The Trilemma has three modes:
Infinite Regress, Vicious Circle and Ad Hoc Assumption.
Paradox is a statement that is seemingly
contradictory or opposed to common
sense and yet is perhaps true. Something having seemingly
contradictory
qualities or phases.
Ad Hoc
Hypothesis is another hypothesis that is added to a theory in order to
save it from being falsified. Scientists are often skeptical of theories
that rely on frequent,
unsupported
adjustments to sustain them. This is because, if a theorist so
chooses, there is no limit to the number of ad hoc hypotheses that they
could add. Thus the theory becomes more and more complex, but is never
falsified. This is often at a cost to the theory's predictive power,
however. Ad hoc hypotheses are often characteristic of pseudoscientific
subjects. Often, ad hoc hypothesizing is employed to compensate for
anomalies not anticipated by the theory in its unmodified form.
Vicious Circle
is a sequence of reciprocal cause and effect in which two or more elements
intensify and aggravate each other, leading inexorably to a worsening of
the situation. A vicious circle is a complex chain of events that
reinforces itself through a feedback loop, with detrimental results. It is
a system with no tendency toward equilibrium, at least in the short run.
Each iteration of the cycle reinforces the previous one, in an example of
positive feedback.
Roundabout Speech.
Infinite Regress is a sequence of reasoning or justification which can
never come to an end. Like asking why after every answer. It is an
infinite series of entities governed by a recursive principle that
determines how each entity in the series depends on or is produced by its
predecessor. In the epistemic regress, for example, a belief is justified
because it is based on another belief that is justified. But this other
belief is itself in need of one more justified belief for itself to be
justified and so on. An infinite regress argument is an argument against a
theory based on the fact that this theory leads to an infinite regress.
For such an argument to be successful, it has to demonstrate not just that
the theory in question entails an infinite regress but also that this
regress is vicious. There are different ways in which a regress can be
vicious. The most serious form of viciousness involves a contradiction in
the form of metaphysical impossibility. Other forms occur when the
infinite regress is responsible for the theory in question being
implausible or for its failure to solve the problem it was formulated to
solve. Traditionally, it was often assumed without much argument that each
infinite regress is vicious but this assumption has been put into question
in contemporary philosophy. While some philosophers have explicitly
defended theories with infinite regresses, the more common strategy has
been to reformulate the theory in question in a way that avoids the
regress. One such strategy is foundationalism, which posits that there is
a first element in the series from which all the other elements arise but
which is not itself explained this way. Another way is coherentism, which
is based on a holistic explanation that usually sees the entities in
question not as a linear series but as an interconnected network. Infinite
regress arguments have been made in various areas of philosophy. Famous
examples include the cosmological argument, Bradley's regress and regress
arguments in epistemology.
Axiom is
a statement or proposition which is regarded as being established,
accepted, or self-evidently true. An axiom, postulate, or
assumption is a statement that is
taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further
reasoning and
arguments.
Münchhausen Trilemma is a thought experiment intended to demonstrate
the theoretical impossibility of proving any truth,
even in the fields of logic and mathematics, without appealing to accepted
assumptions. If it is asked how any
given proposition is known to be true, proof may be provided. Yet that
same question can be asked of the proof, and any subsequent proof. The
Münchhausen trilemma is that there are only three ways of completing a
proof: The
circular argument, in
which the proof of some proposition presupposes the truth of that very
proposition. The regressive argument, in which each proof requires a
further proof, ad infinitum. The dogmatic argument, which rests on
accepted precepts which are merely asserted rather than defended. The
trilemma, then, is the decision among the three equally unsatisfying
options. Karl Popper's suggestion was to accept the trilemma as unsolvable
and work with knowledge by way of conjecture and criticism.
Truth is Debatable.
Theory's - Hypothesis - Premise - Proof
Hypothesis is a proposed
explanation for a phenomenon. For a
hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the
scientific method requires
that
one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on
previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be
explained with the
available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and
"theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the
same as a scientific theory. A
working hypothesis is a provisionally
accepted hypothesis
proposed for further
research.
Hypothetical is a
scenario
that's based on an
opinion and incomplete
evidence
that describes something that
may exist as a
possibility, or as an
unproven idea or theory. Something based on an
informed
guess or a theory that may or may not be true and serving as a
hypothesis, which means an idea, or a
guess, that you are going to test
through an
experiment.
Relative -
Past Rulings -
Expert Witness -
Peer Reviewed
Statistical Hypothesis Testing
is a hypothesis that is
testable on the basis of
observing a process that
is modeled via a set of random
variables.
Continuum
Hypothesis is a hypothesis about the
possible sizes of infinite sets.
It states: There is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of
the integers and the real numbers.
Theory is an
combination of thoughts or
ideas derived from a rational type of
abstract or
generalizing thinking, or are the
results of such thinking.
Depending on the
context, the results might for
example include
generalized explanations of
how
nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern
use it has taken on several different related
meanings. A good theory does
not make an assumption or
asks trick questions.
Scientific Theory
is a well-substantiated
explanation of some aspect of the natural world
that is acquired through the
scientific method and repeatedly
tested and
confirmed, preferably using a written, predefined, protocol of
observations and
experiments. Scientific theories are the most
reliable,
rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge.
Theoretical is concerned primarily with
theories or hypotheses rather than
practical considerations. Aiming to
understand fundamental principles rather than developing
practical
applications.
Prove it to be True.
Prove it to be False. How Necessary is it to Prove? What are your
priorities?
"By
observation we can deduce how something, anything works" (
Victor
Scauberger)
Computational Complexity Theory focuses on
classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty,
and relating those classes to each other. A computational problem is
understood to be a task that is in principle amenable to being solved by a
computer, which is equivalent to stating that the problem may be solved by
mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an
algorithm.
Premise is a statement that is
assumed
to be
true, often as an explanation from which a
conclusion can be drawn.
To take something as preexisting and given. To set forth an idea beforehand.
Predictions.
Premise
is a statement that what an
argument claims will induce or justify a
conclusion. In other words: a premise is an
assumption that something is
true. In
logic, an argument requires a set of
(at least) two declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the
premises or premises along with another declarative sentence (or
"proposition") known as the conclusion. This structure of two premises and
one conclusion forms the basic argumentative structure. More complex
arguments can use a series of rules to
connect several premises to one
conclusion, or to derive a number of conclusions from the original
premises which then act as premises for additional conclusions. An example
of this is the use of the rules of inference found within symbolic logic.
Statistics.
Axiom is
a statement or proposition which is regarded as being established,
accepted, or self-evidently true.
Instrumentalism is a methodological view that
ideas are useful instruments, and
that the worth of an idea is based on how effective it is in
explaining and predicting natural
phenomena. According to instrumentalists, a successful scientific theory
reveals nothing known either true or false about nature's unobservable
objects, properties or processes. Scientific theory is merely a tool
whereby humans
predict
observations in a particular domain of nature by formulating laws, which
state or summarize regularities, while theories themselves do not reveal
supposedly hidden aspects of nature that somehow explain these laws.
What's your Point? What are you trying to
say? What is the essential idea that you are trying to convey? Where are
you going with this? What's the core of what you're saying? What do you
mean? What conclusion should be inferred?
Point.
Assertion is a declaration that is made
emphatically as if
no supporting evidence were necessary. The
act of
affirming or asserting
or stating something.
Suppose is to
expect something to be
true.
To
believe or take something for granted or as a given.
Supposition is a message expressing an
opinion based on incomplete evidence.
Prove.
Postulate is a proposition
that is
accepted as true in order to provide a
basis for logical reasoning. Must previously have happened or existed,
happen or be in place during (in order for stated thing to be happening or
be the case). Take as a given; Maintain or assert.
Summary.
Proposition is a
statement that
affirms or
denies something and is either
true or
false. A proposal offered for
acceptance or rejection. The act of making a proposal or an offer.
Proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship between
constructs that is stated in a declarative form.
Proposal is to
present or to
put forward
something for consideration,
examination and
criticism. Something
declared or offered such as a
plan,
goal
or an
assumption. Nominate
someone for
appointment to an office or for an honor or position.
Request for Proposal -
Business Proposal
Introduce is to cause something to become
know personally
before the public for the first time. To bring in and put
before or establish something new into a new place or new environment.
Enlighten.
Statement is a definite or clear expression of something in speech or
writing. An official account of facts,
views, or
plans, especially one for release to the media. A formal account of events
given by a witness, defendant, or other party to the police or in a court
of law.
Inform -
Disseminate.
Fundamentals
are principles from which other truths can be derived. Any factor that
could be considered important to the understanding of a particular
business.
Cornerstone are the
fundamental assumptions from which something is begun, developed,
calculated or explained. A stone in the exterior of a large and important
building; usually carved with a date and laid with appropriate ceremonies.
A stone at the outer corner of two intersecting masonry walls.
Groundwork -
Capstone.
Hitchens's Razor is an epistemological razor
asserting that the
burden of proof regarding the
truthfulness of a claim
lies with the one who makes the claim, and if this burden is not met, the
claim is unfounded, and its opponents need not argue further in order to
dismiss it.
Philosophical Razor is a principle or rule of thumb that allows one to
eliminate or
shave off unlikely explanations for a phenomenon, or avoid
unnecessary actions.
Process of Elimination.
Occam's Razor is when all things being equal,
the
simplest explanation is
probably the correct one. (Elegant Simplicity).
Extraordinary Claims require Extraordinary Evidence is related to
Occam's razor in the sense that according to such a heuristic, simpler
explanations are preferred to more complicated ones. Only in situations
where extraordinary evidence exists would an extraordinary claim be the
simplest explanation.
If it looks like a Duck, swims like a
duck, and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck.
Duck
Test implies that a person can identify an unknown subject by
observing that subject's habitual characteristics. It is sometimes used to
counter abstruse arguments that something is not what it appears to be.
The Five W's and an H (What?
When? Where? Who? Why? How?).
Evidence.
Science is more than just peer reviewed (reddit video) -
Literature -
Repeatable
Operational Definition is the application of operationalization used
in
defining the terms of a process (or
set of validation tests) needed to determine the nature of an item or
phenomenon (e.g. a variable, term, or object) and its properties such as
duration, quantity, extension in space, chemical composition, etc. Since
the degree of operationalization can vary itself, it can result in a more
or less operational definition. The procedures included in definitions
should be repeatable by anyone or at least by peers.
Speculate is to form a
theory about a
subject
without firm evidence along with an element of
doubt
or without sufficient reason to reach a conclusion.
Speculation is a message expressing an
opinion based on incomplete evidence. A hypothesis that has been formed by
speculating or conjecturing usually with little hard evidence. An
investment that is very
risky
but could yield great profits.
Conjecture is expressing an
opinion based on
incomplete
evidence.
Reasoning that
involves the formation of
conclusions from incomplete
evidence. To
believe especially on
uncertain or tentative grounds.
False Advertising.
Guess is an opinion
based on incomplete evidence. An
estimate
based on little or no information.
Unsubstantiated is
unsupported by other
evidence.
Validity.
Criticism of Science addresses problems within science in order to
improve science as a whole and its role in society. Criticisms come from
philosophy, from social movements like feminism, and from within science
itself. The emerging field of metascience seeks to increase the quality of
and efficiency of scientific research by improving the scientific process.
Odds -
Probability
-
Statistics -
Debunking -
Refuting -
Scrutiny -
Junk Science
Rhetoric of Science explores the notion that the practice of science
is a
rhetorical activity.
Rhetoric is best known as a discipline that studies the means and ends of
persuasion. Science, meanwhile, is typically seen as the discovery and
recording of knowledge about the natural world. A key contention of
rhetoric of science is that the practice of science is, to varying
degrees, persuasive. The study of science from this viewpoint variously
examines modes of inquiry, logic, argumentation, the ethos of scientific
practitioners, the structures of scientific publications, and the
character of scientific discourse and debates.
Fringe Science is an inquiry in an established field of
study which departs significantly from mainstream theories in that field
and is considered to be questionable by the mainstream. Fringe science may
be either a questionable application of a scientific approach to a field
of study or an approach whose status as scientific is widely questioned.
DIY.
Commensurability is a concept in the
philosophy of science whereby
scientific theories are commensurable if scientists can discuss them using
a shared nomenclature that allows
direct
comparison of theories to determine which theory is more
valid or
useful. On the other hand, theories are
incommensurable if they are embedded in starkly contrasting conceptual
frameworks whose languages do not overlap sufficiently to permit
scientists to directly compare the theories or to cite empirical evidence
favoring one theory over the other.
Theorem is a statement
that has been
proven on the basis of previously
established statements, such as other theorems, and generally
accepted statements, such as axioms. A theorem is a logical consequence of
the axioms. The proof of a mathematical theorem is a logical argument for
the theorem statement given in accord with the rules of a deductive
system. The proof of a theorem is often interpreted as justification of
the truth of the theorem statement. In light of the requirement that
theorems be proved, the concept of a theorem is fundamentally deductive,
in contrast to the notion of a scientific law, which is experimental.
Axiom is
a
statement that is taken to be
true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further
reasoning and
arguments. Axiom is a saying that
is widely accepted on its own merits. Axiom in logic is a proposition that
is not susceptible of proof or disproof; its truth is assumed to be
self-evident.
Mathematical Proof is an
inferential argument for a mathematical
statement. In the
argument, other previously established statements, such
as theorems, can be used. In principle, a
proof can be traced back to
self-evident or assumed statements, known as axioms, along with accepted
rules of inference. Axioms may be treated as conditions that must be met
before the statement applies. Proofs are examples of exhaustive
deductive
reasoning or inductive reasoning and are distinguished from empirical
arguments or non-exhaustive inductive reasoning (or "reasonable
expectation"). A proof must demonstrate that a statement is always true
(occasionally by listing all possible cases and showing that it holds in
each), rather than enumerate many confirmatory cases. An unproved
proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture. Proofs
employ logic but usually include some amount of
natural language which
usually admits some ambiguity. In fact, the vast majority of proofs in
written mathematics can be considered as applications of rigorous informal
logic. Purely formal proofs, written in symbolic language instead of
natural language, are considered in proof theory. The distinction between
formal and informal proofs has led to much
examination of current and
historical mathematical practice, quasi-empiricism in mathematics, and
so-called folk mathematics (in both senses of that term). The philosophy
of mathematics is concerned with the role of language and logic in proofs,
and
mathematics as a language.
Formulate - Explain
First Principle is a basic,
foundational, self-evident proposition or
assumption that cannot be
deduced from any other
proposition or assumption. In mathematics, first principles are referred
to as axioms or postulates. In physics and other sciences, theoretical
work is said to be from first principles, or ab initio, if it
starts
directly at the level of established science and
does not make assumptions such as empirical model and parameter
fitting. In philosophy, first principles are taught by Aristotelians, and
nuanced versions of first principles are referred to as postulates by
Kantians.
Analogies.
Scientific Paradigm is a framework
containing all the commonly accepted views about a subject, conventions
about what direction research should take and how it should be performed.
Credulity is the ability to believe or
accept something. To strain credulity means that while anything is
possible, this is so highly unlikely as to not merit any serious
discussion. Some things are just beyond belief.
Postulate.
Formulate is to come up
with an
idea, plan,
explanation,
theory, or principle, after a
mental effort. Put something into words or an expression.
Prepare something according to a formula.
Formulation is the
putting
together of components in appropriate relationships or structures,
according to a formula.
Reformulation
is inventing or
contriving an
idea or explanation and
formulating it mentally. The style of expressing yourself. A substance
prepared according to a formula.
Formula
is a concise way of
expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a
chemical formula. The informal use of the term formula in science refers
to the
general construct of a
relationship between given
quantities.
Math Formula -
Chemical Formula.
Making a Strong Claim. Hedges are a
non-committal or intentionally ambiguous statement, and in writing they
can weaken your
argument. When
making your claim, state it as a fact, and then defend it using credible
evidence. In an argumentative paper, this statement would be followed by
explanations of the claim and evidence supporting it.
Coincidence
-
Anomaly -
Errors
Falsifiability: If it is
contradicted by a basic statement, which, in
an eventual successful or failed falsification, must respectively
correspond to a true or
hypothetical observation.
Proof - Proving
Proof
or Proving is to
demonstrate the
truth of something by
presenting
accurate and
valid evidence,
or providing and
showing sufficient
evidence, or
providing a sufficient
argument for the
truth of
a
proposition that has been presented.
Back
it Up is to provide
support
for something and to prove something is true.
Provide Support is to find
evidence
or
experts
who
agree with your idea.
Established is something
shown to be
valid beyond a
reasonable doubt. To establish the
validity of
something, as by an
example,
explanation or
experiment. Conforming with accepted
standards. Set up or lay the groundwork for. Brought about or set up or
accepted.
Ground work is work that is done
in
preparation for
something that will happen later.
Explain -
Determine -
Repeat -
Real Life Examples -
Research -
Tested -
Drug ResearchProof Positive is
evidence taken to be final or
absolute proof of the
existence of something. Something which definitely
shows that something else is
true or
correct.
Substantiate is provide
evidence
to support or prove the truth of something. To establish or strengthen an
argument using new evidence or
facts. To make something real or concrete or to give
reality or substance
to something. To support, confirm and reinforce.
Precedent.
Attest is to provide evidence for an
assertion that stands as proof of an occurrence. To
authenticate and affirm something to be
true, genuine, or correct, as in
an official capacity. To establish or verify. Attest in
law is to give
testimony in a court of law. To show by
one's behavior, attitude, or external attributes.
Affirm.
Burden of Proof is the
obligation on a party in a
dispute to provide
sufficient warrant for their
position or opinion.
Law.
Proof of Concept is a
realization of a certain
method or
idea in order to
demonstrate its feasibility, or a demonstration in principle with the aim
of verifying that some
concept
or theory has practical potential. A proof of concept is usually small and
may or may not be complete.
Concept Testing is the process of using surveys or qualitative methods
to evaluate consumer acceptance of a new product idea prior to the
introduction of a product to the market.
Field Tested is a
test on a product that is carried out in the
environment in which a product or device is
intended to be
used. The research is
conducted in
real-world settings
where the process of testing and evaluating an application is done in
real-world conditions. This type
of testing is done outside of the highly controlled development
environment in a laboratory.
Field Experiments require researchers to retain some control over
randomization and implementation in order to measure intended use
parameters. Quasi-experiments occur when treatments are administered as-if
randomly. To prove accuracy it is best to randomly assign subjects (or
other sampling units) to either treatment or control groups to test claims
of causal relationships. Random assignment helps establish the
comparability of the treatment and control group so that any differences
between them that emerge after the treatment has been administered
plausibly reflect the influence of the treatment rather than pre-existing
differences between the groups. and often unobtrusively and control not
only the subject pool but selection and overtness,
Proving Ground is a place for scientific
experimentation or testing, or a place where prototypes are developed and
tried out.
The Proof is in the Pudding
means that you have to try something in order to know if that something is
good or
bad.
Prove it before
you do it. Put your
reasoning in
writing first, then do the
experiments.
Axiomatic is being
evident without proof or
argument.
Untenable is something incapable of
being defended or justified.
Tenable
is something based on sound reasoning or evidence. well-founded.
Postulate is a a proposition that is
accepted as true in order to provide a basis for logical reasoning. Take
as a given. Maintain or assert. Must previously have happened or existed.
Predicate is to affirm or declare as an
attribute or the quality of something.
Theory.
Affirm is to establish or strengthen as
with new
evidence or facts. To declare or affirm
solemnly and formally as true. Say yes to.
Assert is to insist on having one's
opinions and rights recognized. To declare or
affirm solemnly and
formally
as true.
Formal Proof is a finite sequence of sentences called well-formed
formulas in the case of a
formal language,
each of which is an axiom, an
assumption, or follows from the preceding
sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference. It differs from a
natural language argument in that it is rigorous, unambiguous and
mechanically checkable. If the set of assumptions is empty, then the last
sentence in a formal proof is called a theorem of the formal system. The
notion of theorem is not in general effective, therefore there may be no
method by which we can always find a proof of a given sentence or
determine that none exists. The concepts of Fitch-style proof, sequent
calculus and natural deduction are generalizations of the concept of
proof. The theorem is a syntactic consequence of all the well-formed
formulas preceding it in the proof. For a well-formed formula to qualify
as part of a proof, it must be the result of applying a rule of the
deductive apparatus (of some formal system) to the previous well-formed
formulas in the proof sequence. Formal proofs often are constructed with
the help of computers in interactive theorem proving (e.g., through the
use of proof checker and automated theorem prover). Significantly,
these proofs can be checked automatically, also by computer. Checking
formal proofs is usually simple, while the problem of finding proofs
(automated theorem proving) is usually computationally intractable and/or
only semi-decidable, depending upon the formal system in use.
Well-Formed Formula is a finite
sequence of
symbols from a given alphabet that is part of a formal language. A
formal language can be identified with the set of formulas in the
language. A formula is a syntactic object that can be given a semantic
meaning by means of an interpretation. Two key uses of formulas are in
propositional logic and predicate logic.
Scientific Law
or
laws of science are statements that describe or predict a range of
natural phenomena. A scientific law is a statement
based on
repeated experiments or
observations that describe some aspect of the
natural world. The term
law has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or
narrow) across all fields of natural science (
physics,
chemistry,
biology,
geology,
astronomy, etc.).
Laws are developed from data and can be further
developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or
indirectly based on
empirical evidence. It is generally understood that
they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal
relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than
invented. Scientific laws summarize the results of experiments or
observations, usually within a certain range of application. In general,
the accuracy of a law does not change when a new theory of the relevant
phenomenon is worked out, but rather the scope of the law's application,
since the mathematics or statement representing the law does not change.
As with other kinds of scientific knowledge, laws do not have absolute
certainty (as mathematical theorems or identities do), and it is always
possible for a law to be contradicted, restricted, or extended by future
observations. A law can usually be formulated as one or several statements
or equations, so that it can be used to predict the outcome of an
experiment, given the
circumstances of the processes taking place. Laws differ from
hypotheses and postulates, which are proposed during the scientific
process before and during validation by experiment and observation.
Hypotheses and postulates are not laws since they have not been verified
to the same degree, although they may lead to the formulation of laws.
Laws are narrower in scope than scientific theories, which may entail one
or several laws. Science distinguishes a law or theory from facts. Calling
a law a fact is ambiguous, an overstatement, or an equivocation. The
nature of scientific laws has been much discussed in philosophy, but in
essence scientific laws are simply empirical conclusions reached by
scientific method; they are intended to be neither laden with ontological
commitments nor statements of logical absolutes.
Laws
of Science are statements that describe or predict a range
of phenomena behave as they appear to in nature. The term "law" has
diverse usage in many cases: approximate, accurate, broad or narrow
theories, in all natural scientific disciplines (physics, chemistry,
biology, geology, astronomy etc.). Scientific laws summarize and explain a
large collection of facts determined by
experiment, and are
tested based
on their ability to
predict the results of future
experiments. They are
developed either from facts or through
mathematics, and are strongly
supported by
empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they
reflect
causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered
rather than invented.
Testing.
Data
Driven Science is an interdisciplinary field about
scientific methods, processes and systems to
extract knowledge or insights
from data in various forms, either structured or unstructured, similar to
Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD). Data science is a "concept to
unify statistics, data analysis and their related methods" in order to
"understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data. It employs techniques
and theories drawn from many fields within the broad areas of mathematics,
statistics, information science, and computer science, in particular from
the subdomains of
machine learning,
classification, cluster
analysis, data mining,
databases, and
visualization.
I will believe it when I see it means
that you doubt that something can happen based on the fact that you have
never personally seen it happen, but it could happen, you're just not
depending on it to happen. And if it does happen, then you will believe it
and except it.
Physical Law is a theoretical statement "inferred from
particular
facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and
expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if
certain conditions be present." Physical laws are typically conclusions
based on
repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years
and which have become accepted universally within the scientific
community. The production of a summary description of our environment in
the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science. These terms are not
used the same way by all authors. The distinction between natural law in
the political-legal sense and law of nature or physical law in the
scientific sense is a modern one, both concepts being equally derived from physis, the Greek word (translated into Latin as natura) for nature.
Forces of Nature.
Scientific Study
Observational Study draws
inferences about the possible
effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of
subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside
the control of the
investigator.
Randomized Controlled Trial is a type of scientific
experiment, often in the medical field, where the people being
studied are randomly allocated one of the different treatments.
Research.
Scientific Progress is the idea that science increases its
problem-solving ability through the application of the scientific method.
Retrospective Cohort Study
is a longitudinal cohort study that studies a cohort of individuals that
share a common exposure factor to determine its influence on the
development of a disease, and are compared to another group of equivalent
individuals that were not exposed to that factor. Retrospective cohort
studies have existed for approximately as long as prospective cohort
studies.
Prospective Cohort Study
is a longitudinal cohort study that follows over time a group of similar
individuals (cohorts) who differ with respect to certain factors under
study, to determine how these factors affect rates of a certain
outcome. For example, one might follow a cohort of middle-aged truck
drivers who vary in terms of smoking habits, to test the hypothesis that
the 20-year incidence rate of lung cancer will be highest among heavy
smokers, followed by moderate smokers, and then nonsmokers.
Meta-Analysis is a statistical analysis that
combines the results of multiple scientific studies.
Nomenclature is a
system of names or terms, or the rules for
forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The
principal of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of
everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and
recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terms
used in scientific and any other disciplines. Naming "things" is a part of
general
human communication using words
and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish
the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and
differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of
names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different
languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way
humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and
experience relates to the philosophy of language.
Onomastics is the study of proper names and their origins, includes
anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names,
surnames and nicknames);
toponymy is the
study of place names.
Etymology is the
derivation, history and use of names as revealed through comparative and
descriptive
linguistics. The
scientific need for
simple, stable
and internationally accepted systems for naming objects of the natural
world has generated many formal nomenclatural systems. Probably the best
known of these nomenclatural systems are the five codes of
biological nomenclature that govern the Latinized scientific names of
organisms.
Related Subjects -
Problem Solving
Methods -
Creativity -
Planning -
Reasoning -
Communication -
Train -
Instruct -
Independent Learning -
Investigation -
Questioning -
Develop
-
Development Meaning
-
Development Process
Science Literature
Scientific Literature comprises
scholarly publications that
report
original empirical work and theoretical work in the natural and social
sciences, and within an academic field, often abbreviated as the
literature.
Thesis
-
Argument -
Research -
Evidence -
Junk
Science -
Conflict of Interest
Scientific Journal is a periodical publication intended to further the
progress of science, usually by reporting new research.
Academic Publishing is the process of contributing the results of
one's research into the literature, which often requires a peer-review
process. Original scientific research published for the first time in
scientific journals is called the
primary literature.
Patents and technical reports, for minor research results and engineering
and design work (including computer software), can also be considered
primary literature. Secondary sources include review articles (which
summarize the findings of published studies to highlight advances and new
lines of research) and books (for large projects or broad arguments,
including compilations of articles). Tertiary sources might include
encyclopedias and similar works intended for broad public consumption.
Citations -
Information Literacy -
Peer Reviewed -
Repeatable
Academic Journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship
relating to a
particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve
as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and
discussion of research. They are usually peer-reviewed or refereed.
Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research,
review articles, and book reviews.
Journal
is a collection of articles that is published regularly throughout the
year, like a magazine. Journals present the most recent research, and
journal articles are written by
experts, for experts.
Research Article
is a journal article in which the authors report on the research they did.
A research article is a report that details the results of an author's
original research. It typically aims to contribute to the existing body of
academic material within a given field. Research articles are sometimes
primary sources. Whether or not a research article is peer reviewed
depends on the journal that publishes it.
Technical Report is a
document that describes the process, progress,
or results of technical or
scientific research or the state of a technical
or scientific research problem. It might also include recommendations and
conclusions of the research. Unlike other scientific literature, such as
scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences,
technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review
before publication. They may be considered as grey literature. Where there
is a review process, it is often limited to within the originating
organization. Similarly, there are no
formal publishing procedures for such reports, except where
established locally.
Plain Language -
Technical Writing
-
Articulate -
Third Party
Grey Literature are materials and
research produced by organizations
outside of the traditional commercial or academic publishing and
distribution channels. Common grey literature publication types include
reports (annual, research, technical, project, etc.), working papers,
government documents, white papers and evaluations. Organizations that
produce grey literature include government departments and agencies, civil
society or non-governmental organisations, academic centres and
departments, and private companies and consultants. Grey literature may be
made available to the public, or distributed privately within
organizations or groups, and may lack a systematic means of distribution
and collection. The standard of quality, review and production of grey
literature can vary considerably. Grey literature may be difficult to
discover, access, and evaluate, but this can be addressed through the
formulation of sound search strategies.
White Paper is an
authoritative report or
guide that
informs readers
concisely about a
complex
issue and presents the issuing body's philosophy on the matter. It is
meant to help readers understand an issue,
solve a problem, or make a decision. In business, a white paper is
closer to a form of marketing presentation, a tool meant to persuade
customers and partners and promote a product or viewpoint. White papers
may be considered grey literature.
Working Paper is a preliminary scientific or
technical paper. Often,
authors will release working papers to
share ideas
about a topic or to elicit feedback before submitting to a peer reviewed
conference or academic journal. Working papers are often the basis for
related works, and may in themselves be cited by peer-review papers. They
may be considered as grey literature.
Science
Communication is the
public communication of science-related topics to
non-experts. This often involves professional scientists called
outreach or popularization, but has also evolved into a professional
field in its own right. It includes
science exhibitions, journalism,
policy or media production. Science communication also includes
communication between scientists through
scientific
journals, as well as between scientists and non-scientists
during public controversies over science and in
citizen science
initiatives. Science communication may generate support for
scientific
research or study, or to inform decision making, including political and
ethical thinking. There is increasing emphasis on explaining methods
rather than simply findings of science. This may be especially critical in
addressing
scientific misinformation, which spreads easily because it is
not subject to the constraints of scientific method. Science communicators
can use entertainment and persuasion including humor, storytelling and
metaphors. Scientists can be trained in some of the techniques used by
actors to improve their communication.
Galley Proof
are the preliminary versions of publications meant for review by authors,
editors, and proofreaders, often with
extra-wide margins.
Galley proofs may be uncut and unbound, or in some cases electronically
transmitted. They are created for proofreading and copyediting purposes,
but may also be used for promotional and review purposes.
Preprint is something that is printed in
advance, especially a part of a work printed and issued before general
publication of that work. In academic publishing, a
preprint
is a version of a scholarly or scientific paper that precedes formal peer
review and publication in a peer-reviewed scholarly or scientific journal.
The preprint may be available, often as a non-typeset version available
free, before or after a paper is published in a journal.
Academic Papers.
The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science is a general guide to the
sciences by the American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It was first
published in 1960 by Basic Books. Revised versions were published as The
New Intelligent Man's Guide to Science (1965), Asimov's Guide to Science
(1972), and Asimov's New Guide to Science (1984). Asimov began work on the
book on 2 October, and found that he had no trouble with it at all,
writing anywhere from 6,000 to 10,000 words a day without any sense of
strain. By 27 January 1958, Asimov was able to deliver the first half of
the completed manuscript to Basic Books, but at a meeting a month later,
Svirsky suggested cutting the book in half so it could fit in one volume.
At that point, Asimov was only two chapters shy of finishing the book, but
saw no reason to complete it if it would be subjected to such radical
abridgment, and halted work. He resumed work after being informed on 11
March that Svirsky would not try to reduce the book by half, but would
instead publish it in two volumes. When he began proofing the book's
galleys, Asimov was horrified to find that Svirsky still cut out some 30%
of the book's material. Asimov reinserted as much information into the
galley proofs as he could, but he remained unhappy with the book. The
Intelligent Man's Guide to Science was first published in 1960 by Basic
Books. It was published, in revised editions, as The New Intelligent Man's
Guide to Science in 1965, Asimov's Guide to Science in 1972, and Asimov's
New Guide to Science in 1984. Bell considered the book thorough and
engaging, crediting Asimov with "encyclopedic knowledge of astronomy,
geology, physics, and chemistry" and "considerable understanding and
knowledge of organic chemistry, cellular function and theory,
microbiology, the human body and its needs, evolution, and the mind", and
providing useful "figures, sketches, and maps. Williams complimented
Asimov for his updated treatment of artificial intelligence, computers,
cancer, the solar system, quasars, black holes, evolution, and the energy
crisis, but considered it disappointing that there was no update on
genetic engineering.
National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine provide independent,
objective advice to inform policy with evidence, spark progress and
innovation, and confront challenging issues for the benefit of society.
Research Gate
- Access over 135 million publication pages and stay up to date with
what's happening in your field. Discover scientific knowledge and stay
connected to the world of science.
Knowledge Base.
Basic
Books is a book publisher founded in 1950 and located in New York, now
an imprint of Hachette Book Group. It publishes books in the fields of
psychology, philosophy, economics, science, politics, sociology, current
affairs, and history.
Process - Processing
Process
is a
series of actions or a set of
interrelated
activities or
steps that are taken in order to achieve a particular
goal. To perform a series of
mechanical or chemical
operations that would accomplish a particular goal
or obtain the necessary results needed. To perform mathematical and logical
operations on data according to programmed
instructions
in order to obtain the required
information for some
purpose,
improvement or condition. To deal with
something in
a
routine way to shape, form, or improve a material.
Process in
engineering is a
series of
interrelated tasks
that,
together, transform
inputs into outputs. These tasks may be carried
out by people, nature or machines using various resources. An
engineering
process must be considered in the
context of the agents carrying out the
tasks and the resource attributes involved.
Development -
Personal Development
-
Practice Skills
Process in
computing is a process made up of
multiple threads of execution that
execute instructions at the same time or a
different times depending on the
program.
Process in science is constructing an
accurate, reliable, repeatable model
of the
real world.
Parallel Processing is the ability of the brain to
simultaneously process
incoming stimuli of differing quality. With vision, the
brain divides what
it sees into four components: color, motion, shape, and depth. These are
individually analyzed and then compared to stored
memories,
which helps the brain identify what you are viewing. The brain then
combines all of these into the
field of view that you see and comprehend.
Batch Processing -
Multitasking.
Unit Operation is a basic step in a process. Unit operations
involve a
physical change or chemical transformation such as separation,
crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization,
and other
reactions.
Processed is
information prepared or
converted from a
natural state in order to
extract important information and subject it to a process, established
procedure or treatment, with the aim of readying
it for some
purpose, or improving, or
remedying a condition. A series of actions,
changes, or functions bringing about a result. A series of operations
performed in the making or treatment of a product.
Understanding -
Thinking.
Processer (computers) -
Processing (information)
-
Process Management
Processing is performing mathematical and
logical
operations on
Data
according to
instructions or prescribed
procedures in
order to
obtain the required
information.
Interpretation.
Instructions
Instructions is
describing how something should
be done and
when certain actions should happen. Giving
directions on
how to complete a
task helps to
make doing something easier or more reliable.
Instructions include a
detailed outline of the activities needed to be
performed with
step by step easy-to-follow directions and
simple explanations that have clear
and specific messages in
logical order.
Directions is a message describing
how something is to be done. Helpful
suggestions regarding a
decision
or future course of action. The
concentration of attention or energy on something. A general course
along which something has a tendency to develop. The act of setting and
holding a course.
Navigation.
Without instructions, life could not exist.
DNA Code -
DNA Expression -
Operating System
Knowing what to do when something bad happens.
Emergencies -
Planning -
Tutor -
Teaching -
Guidance -
Procedure.
Manual is a handbook that instructs
someone on how to use a particular device or a piece of software. A
concise
reference book
providing specific information about a subject or a location.
Operators Manual is a
handbook used to
communicate proper
operation information and
technical information,
as well as scientific information or
engineering information,
that helps to instruct someone on how to use a particular machine
safely.
Instruction Manual
is an instructional
book or
booklet that is supplied with almost all
technologically advanced consumer products such as vehicles, home
appliances and computer peripherals. Information contained in the owner's
manual typically includes
safety instructions; for
liability reasons these
can be extensive, often including
warnings against performing
operations
that are ill-advised for
product longevity or overall user
safety reasons.
Assembly instructions; for products that arrive in pieces for easier
shipping. Installation instructions; for products that need to be
installed in a home or workplace. Setup instructions; for devices that
keep track of time or which
maintain user accessible state. Instructions
for use. Programming instructions; for microprocessor controlled products
such as VCRs, programmable calculators, and synthesizers.
Maintenance
instructions.
Troubleshooting instructions; for when the product does
not work as expected.
Service locations; for when the product requires
repair by a factory authorized technician. Regulatory code
compliance
information; for example with respect to safety or
electromagnetic
interference. Product technical specifications. Warranty information;
sometimes provided as a separate sheet.
Explaining -
Meaning -
Algorithms
-
Quality Control
User
Guide is a technical
communication
document intended to give
assistance to people using a particular
system. It is usually
written by a technical writer, although user guides are written by
programmers, product or
project managers, or other technical staff,
particularly in smaller companies.
Operation is a
planned
activity involving many
people performing various actions. A process
or a
series of acts especially of a practical or
mechanical nature involved in a particular form of work. Operation in
computing is data processing in which the result is completely specified
by a rule, especially the processing that results from a single
instruction. Operation in psychology is the performance of some composite
cognitive activity; an operation that affects mental contents. operation
in mathematics is calculation by mathematical methods. Operation in
surgery is a medical procedure involving an incision with instruments that
are performed to repair damage or arrest disease in a living body.
Procedures - Methods
Procedure is a particular
course of action intended to achieve a result. A
process or
series of acts especially of a practical or mechanical nature involved in
a particular form of work. A set
sequence of steps, part of larger
computer program.
Standards -
Instructions
-
Algorithms
-
Traditions -
Strategy -
Script -
Movie MakingGuideline is
a
detailed plan or
explanation to guide you in
setting
standards or determining the best course of
action. A guideline aims to
streamline particular
processes according to a set
routine or sound practice.
A course of action is a
procedure adopted to deal with a
situation.
Regulations.
Way is how something is done or how it
happens. How a result is obtained or an end is achieved. A line leading to
a place or point. A journey or passage. Any artifact consisting of a road
or path affording passage from one place to another. The property of
distance in general. Space for movement. To a great degree or by a great
distance; very much. A course of conduct. Doing as one pleases or chooses.
Procedure as a term is designed to describe
Who, What, Where, When, and Why?
Procedure Format (image)
-
Rules -
Practices -
Structure -
Mind Map -
DrawingsBy the Book is to do something
according to
standard procedure. To do something by the book is to follow
the set rules and guidelines and carry something out using the typical,
accepted methods.
Systematically is
doing something according to a
fixed
plan or
system, or in a
methodical manner that is
organized.
Medical
Procedure is a course of action intended to
achieve a result in the
care of persons with health problems.
Procedural Task involves performing a procedure, which is a
sequence of activities to achieve a
goal. Synonyms include method,
technique, skill, and sometimes rule. A procedure can be either of two
types: A physical procedure, which entails the execution of physical
movements, like performing a serve in tennis. A mental procedure, which
entails the execution of mental operations, like adding two numbers in
your head.
Procedural Skills encompass the
areas of clinical care that require physical and practical skills of the
clinician in order to accomplish a specific and well characterized
technical task or medical procedure.
Protocol is a system of rules that explain the correct conduct and
procedures to be followed in formal situations. A
code of correct conduct. A
procedure for how an activity should be performed.
Protocol in science is a predefined written procedural method in the
design and implementation of
experiments. Protocols are written
whenever it is desirable to standardize a laboratory method to ensure
successful replication of results by others in the same laboratory or by
other laboratories. Detailed protocols also facilitate the assessment of
results through peer review. In addition to detailed procedures and lists
of required equipment and instruments, protocols often include information
on safety precautions, the calculation of results and reporting standards,
including statistical analysis and rules for predefining and documenting
excluded data to
avoid bias. Protocols are employed in a wide range of
experimental fields, from social science to quantum mechanics. Written
protocols are also employed in manufacturing to ensure consistent quality.
Protocol in natural science is a
predefined written procedural method in the
design and implementation of
experiments.
Communication Protocol -
Diplomacy
Method
is a way of doing something, especially a systematic way. Implies an
orderly logical arrangement,
usually in
steps.
Scientific Method is a
body of techniques for
investigating
phenomena, based on empirical or measurable
evidence
that is subject to the principles of logic and
reasoning. Acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and
integrating previous knowledge. It involves
careful observation, applying rigorous
skepticism about what is observed,
given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the
observation. It involves
formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on
such observations;
experimental and
measurement-based
testing of
deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of
the hypotheses based on the experimental findings.
Mindset -
Scholarly Method -
Image
(photo)
Methodology is a
system of
methods used in a particular area of study or activity. It comprises
the
theoretical analysis of the
body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
Typically, it encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model,
phases and quantitative or qualitative techniques. A methodology does not
set out to provide solutions—it is therefore, not the same as a method.
Instead, a methodology offers the theoretical underpinning for
understanding which method, set of methods, or
best practices can be
applied to a specific case, for example, to calculate a specific result.
It has been defined also as follows: "the analysis of the principles of
methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline"; the systematic
study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a
discipline"; "the study or description of methods".
Research Methods -
Learning Methods Modality is
the way or mode in which something exists or is done.
Mode is how something is done or how it
happens. A particular functioning condition or arrangement. Modality
refers to the ways language can express various relationships to reality
or truth. Modality is a classification of propositions on the basis of
whether they claim necessity, possibility or impossibility. A method of
therapy that involves physical or electrical therapeutic treatment.
Modal in statistics relates to or
constituting the most frequent value in a distribution.
Methodically is doing something in an
orderly or
systematic manner.
Modus Operandi or
MO is a particular way or method of doing
something, or the way in which something operates or works, especially
something that is characteristic or well-established.
Modus Operandi
in
criminology is a distinct
pattern
or manner of working that comes to be associated with a particular
criminal with the
means,
motive and
opportunity. It's someone's
habits of working, particularly in
the context of business or
criminal investigations. The
term is often used in police work when discussing crime and addressing the
methods employed by criminals. It is also used in criminal
profiling, where it can help
in finding clues to the offender's
psychology. It largely
consists of examining the actions used by the individuals to execute the
crime, prevent its detection and facilitate escape. A suspect's modus
operandi can assist in their identification, apprehension, or repression,
and can also be used to determine links between crimes. In business, modus
operandi is used to describe a firm's
preferred
means of executing business and interacting with other firms. Modus
operandi is latin for operating method.
Professionalism.
Operation is a
planned activity involving many people performing various
actions. A process or series of acts especially of a practical
or mechanical nature involved in a particular form of work.
(psychology) the performance of some composite cognitive
activity; an operation that affects mental contents.
Operation
Types (wiki).
Technique is a practical method or
art applied to some particular task.
Skillfulness in the command of
fundamentals deriving from practice and familiarity.
Application is the act of
creating something and using it for a
particular
purpose, or an action of
putting something into operation.
Application can also mean a program that
gives a
computer instructions that
provide the user with tools to accomplish a task. Application can also
mean a verbal or written request that is sometimes used for applying for a
particular type of work
that a particular service organization provides, which sometimes lists
your
qualifications and
experience.
Formula is
a set of
directions for
making something. A
representation of a substance using
symbols for its constituent elements. A group of
symbols that make a
mathematical statement.
An
Algorithm.
Formula
is a concise way of expressing information symbolically as in a
mathematical or
chemical formula.
Formulate (problem solving).
Prediction (planning) -
Orders of Approximation (odds)
Defining the Question
Models of Scientific Inquiry have two functions: first, to
provide a descriptive account of how scientific
inquiry is carried out in
practice, and second, to provide an explanatory account of why scientific
inquiry succeeds as well as it appears to do in arriving at genuine
knowledge.
Instructions -
Processes
Runbook
is a compilation of
routine procedures and operations that the system
administrator or operator carries out.
Procedural Programming also known as
routines, subroutines, or
functions that contain a series of computational steps to be carried out.
Policy
is a
plan of action adopted by
an individual or
social group. A deliberate
system of
principles to
guide decisions and achieve
rational outcomes. A policy is a statement of intent, and is implemented
as a procedure or protocol. A line of
argument rationalizing the
course of action of a government.
Stored Procedure is a
subroutine available to applications that access a
relational database management
system (RDBMS). Such procedures are stored in the database data
dictionary.
Programming (code)
Formality is
compliance with formal
rules. A manner that strictly observes all
forms and ceremonies. A requirement of
etiquette or
custom.
Compliance is acting according to certain accepted standards.
Regulate.
Task Analysis is the analysis of how a task is accomplished,
including a detailed description of both manual and mental activities,
task and element durations, task frequency, task allocation, task
complexity, environmental conditions, necessary clothing and equipment,
and any other unique factors involved in or required for one or more
people to perform a given task. Task analysis emerged from research in
applied behavior analysis and still has considerable research in that area.
Frederick Winslow Taylor scientific management consisted of four
principles: Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a
scientific study of the tasks. Scientifically select, train, and develop
each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
Provide "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the
performance of that worker's discrete task". Divide work nearly equally
between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific
management principles to planning the work and the workers actually
perform the tasks.
Standards - SOP
Standard Operating Procedure are
procedures that are a set of step-by-step
instructions to
achieve a
predictable, standardized,
desired result, often
within the context of a longer overall process.
Detailed,
written instructions to achieve
uniformity of the
performance of
a specific
function. A document that generally lists the
associated hazards involved in performing a task, what
risk score is associated with the
Hazards.
Standard Operating Procedure
is a set of step-by-step instructions compiled by an organization to help
workers carry out
routine operations.
SOPs aim to achieve
efficiency, quality output and
uniformity of
performance, while reducing miscommunication and mistakes and the failure to comply with
industry regulations.
Safe Operating Procedure is a written
document that provides step-by-step instructions on how to
safely perform a task or activity which
involves some
risk to
health and
safety. A safe operating
procedure is sometimes referred to as a
safe work procedure or safe work method statement.
Safe Use Instructions are used to
communicate correct and safe handling guidelines for equipment and
supplies.
Standard
is a basis for
comparison and a
reference point against which
other things can be
evaluated. The
ideal in terms of which something can be
judged. Established or
well-known or
widely recognized as a
model of
excellence or authority.
Representing a standard of
measurement or
value.
A
reference.
International Organization for Standardization or
ISO is an international standard-setting
body composed of representatives from various
national standards organizations, which are organizations whose
primary activities are developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising,
amending, reissuing, interpreting, or otherwise producing technical
standards that are intended to address the needs of a group of affected
adopters.
Formats for Documents -
ISO Graphical Symbols.
Standard of Care -
Evidence -
Quality
Control (
ISO) -
Safety
International Electrotechnical Commission prepares and publishes
international standards for all electrical, electronic and related
technologies – collectively known as "electrotechnology". IEC standards
cover a vast range of technologies from power generation, transmission and
distribution to home appliances and office equipment, semiconductors,
fibre optics, batteries, solar energy, nanotechnology and marine energy as
well as many others. The IEC also manages four global conformity
assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components
conform to its international standards. All electrotechnologies are
covered by IEC Standards, including energy production and distribution,
electronics, magnetics and electromagnetics, electroacoustics, multimedia,
telecommunication and medical technology, as well as associated general
disciplines such as terminology and symbols, electromagnetic
compatibility, measurement and performance, dependability, design and
development, safety and the environment.
International
Electro-technical Commission.
We need things that are universal
and commonly used or regularly and widely used and that are established
and well-known, like
money is, in a way.
Universal is something that is
applicable worldwide and
common to all members of a group or set and
adaptable to various
purposes, sizes, forms or operations. A
Reliable and easily
recognizable
Pattern that is characteristic of all members of a particular culture
or of all human beings.
Compatible -
Repeatable -
ReusableConsistent
is something that is
capable of
being reproduced or easily
repeated. Something
that is
reliable and is also
accurate in
function and purpose.
Rigorous is an action demanding
strict attention to rules and procedures and allowing no deviation from a
standard. An action that is painstakingly careful and accurate and
performed comprehensively and completely.
Procedure.
Standard in
metrology is an object, system, or
experiment that bears a defined relationship to a unit of
measurement of a physical quantity.
Standards are the fundamental reference for a system of weights and
measures, against which all other measuring devices are compared.
Historical standards for length, volume, and mass were defined by many
different authorities, which resulted in confusion and inaccuracy of
measurements. Modern measurements are defined in relationship to
internationally standardized reference objects, which are used under
carefully
controlled laboratory
conditions to define the units of length, mass, electrical potential,
and other physical quantities.
Standardization
is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on
the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest
groups, standards organizations and governments Standardization can help
to maximize
compatibility,
interoperability,
safety,
repeatability, or
quality. It can also facilitate commoditization of formerly custom
processes. In social sciences, including economics, the idea of
standardization is close to the solution for a coordination problem, a
situation in which all parties can realize mutual gains, but only by
making mutually consistent decisions. This view includes the case of
"spontaneous standardization processes", to produce
de facto standards.
International Standard are standards developed by international
standards organizations. International standards are available for
consideration and use worldwide. The most prominent organization is the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which is an
international standard-setting body composed of representatives from
various national standards organizations.
Standards
Organization is an organization whose primary activities are
developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing,
interpreting, or otherwise producing technical standards that are intended
to address the needs of a group of affected adopters.
Quality Control.
American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization
that oversees the development of
voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes,
systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also
coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American
products can be used worldwide.
Technical Standard is an established norm or requirement in regard to
technical systems. It is usually a
formal
document that establishes uniform engineering or technical criteria,
methods, processes, and practices. In contrast, a custom, convention,
company product, corporate standard, and so forth that becomes
generally accepted and dominant is
often called a de facto standard.
Open
Standard is a standard that is
publicly available
and has various rights to use associated with it, and may also have
various properties of how it was designed (e.g. open process). There is no
single definition and interpretations vary with usage.
Specification is a technical standard that often refers to a set of
documented
requirements to be satisfied by a material, design, product, or service. A
specification is often a type of technical standard. A requirement
specification is a documented requirement, or set of documented
requirements, to be satisfied by a given material, design, product,
service, etc. It is a common early part of engineering design and product
development processes, in many fields. A functional specification is a
kind of requirement specification, and may show functional block diagrams.
A design or product specification describes the features of the solutions
for the Requirement Specification, referring to either a designed solution
or final produced solution. It is often used to guide
fabrication/production. Sometimes the term specification is here used in
connection with a data sheet (or
spec sheet), which may be confusing. A
data sheet describes the technical characteristics of an item or product,
often published by a manufacturer to help people choose or use the
products. A data sheet is not a technical specification in the sense of
informing how to produce. An "in-service" or "maintained as"
specification, specifies the conditions of a system or object after years
of operation, including the effects of wear and
maintenance (configuration
changes). Specifications are a type of technical standard that may be
developed by any of various kinds of organizations, both public and
private. Example organization types include a corporation, a consortium (a
small group of corporations), a trade association (an industry-wide group
of corporations), a national government (including its military,
regulatory agencies, and national laboratories and institutes), a
professional association (society), a
purpose-made standards organization
such as ISO, or vendor-neutral developed generic requirements. It is
common for one organization to refer to (reference, call out, cite) the
standards of another. Voluntary standards may become mandatory if adopted
by a government or business contract.
Specification is a detailed description of design criteria for a
piece of work. A document drawn up by the applicant for a patent of
invention that provides an explicit and detailed description of the nature
and use of an invention. A restriction that is insisted upon as a
condition for an agreement.
Requirement
is something that is necessary or absolutely essential in advance.
Engineering Tolerances -
Quality Control -
Safety -
Rules -
Systems -
Ethics
-
Education Standard
-
Bias -
Surveys
Template is a model, standard or outline to follow or adapt. An
object whose shape is used as a guide to make other objects, e.g. by
cutting around.
Template
(wiki).
Calibration - Calibrate
Calibration is the act of
checking or adjusting by
comparison with a
standard the
accuracy of a
measuring instrument.
Calibration in
measurement technology and
in
metrology is the
comparison of measurement
values delivered by a device under test with those of a
calibration
standard of known
accuracy. Such a standard could be another measurement
device of known accuracy, a device generating the quantity to be measured
such as a voltage, or a physical artifact, such as a meter ruler.
Calibration
is the process of finding a
relationship between two quantities that are
unknown (when the measurable quantities are not given a particular value
for the amount considered or found a
standard for the quantity). When one
of quantity is known, which is made or set with one device, another
measurement is made as similar way as possible with the first device using
a second device. The measurable quantities may differ in two devices which
are equivalent. The device with the known or assigned correctness is
called the standard. The second device is the unit under test,
test
instrument, or any of several other names for the device being
calibrated.
Calibrate to make fine adjustments or
divide into marked
intervals for optimal
measuring. Mark the scale of a measuring instrument
so that it can be read in the desired units. Measure the caliber of
something or a degree or grade of excellence or worth.
Who's Calibrating the Calibrator?
Baseline Mental
States.
Proof Mass or test mass is a known quantity
of mass used in a
measuring instrument
as a
reference for the measurement of an unknown quantity. A mass used to
calibrate a weighing scale is sometimes called a calibration mass or
calibration weight. A proof mass that deforms a spring in an accelerometer
is sometimes called the seismic mass. In a convective accelerometer, a
fluid proof mass may be employed.
Calibration Weights.
Are you sure that the
instruments that
you're using are calibrated? And do you know that the
calibration may not be part of the equation?
Calibration is a
reference point. So the reference needs to
be defined. So the first question is "What is this in reference
to?" "
Don't forget to
Calibrate the Calibrator."
Comparisons -
Repeatable -
Baseline -
Odds (probability).
Bias of an Estimator is the difference between this estimator's
expected value and the true value of the parameter being estimated. An
estimator or decision rule with zero bias is called unbiased. In
statistics, "bias" is an objective property of an estimator.
"It's good to have data, but remember to
always know how the data was collected because the numbers could
be misleading. There may also be
bias in
the research or even mistakes made, so always check for
accuracy before making a decision on what action to take or when determining how to use data."
Physical
Measurement Laboratory is a world leader in the science of
measurement.
We determine the definitive methods for nearly every kind of measurement
employed in commerce and research, provide NIST-traceable calibrations,
and disseminate standards and best practices throughout the nation. At the
same time, PML works continuously at the outermost frontiers of metrology,
devising tools and techniques to meet the ever-changing demands of
American industry and science.
What is Science
Science are various
methods,
processes, tools and skills used for
learning.
Science uses
procedures, testing techniques,
experiences and
accumulated knowledge
and
information
to learn and understand how things work and why things work.
In just the last
500 years, science has given humanity incredible amounts
of knowledge and information. And just in the last 20 years, there
are now over
1 billion people with access to
more
knowledge and
information then any other time in
human history.
This
mass collaboration is our
great awakening. Science gives
us many abilities for
examining and
analyzing things in our world so that we can have a
better
understanding of ourselves and the world around us.
This understanding that science gives us, helps us to
predict future outcomes so that we
can
make better
decisions and make better
plans. Science is also used to create
complex tools, which
in return gives us the ability to create even more complex tools
and create even more
complex machines, thus we learn even more.
Science is also a process for
discovering, which everyone can benefit from.
But the greatest power of science is that anyone
can be a
contributor to this valuable knowledge resource,
as millions
have done in our past.
And millions of people can
also benefit from this knowledge, whether they're living in the present or people who will be living in our
future. So all this
accumulated knowledge becomes the
building
blocks of new
discoveries and new understandings. Not just progressing our advances
in technologies, but
progressing our understanding of ourselves,
so we can be
more aware and make better
choices and make better decisions. Another benefit from science
is that, if and when things do change, we can use our knowledge
and tools to react accordingly instead of just suffering from
the changes in our world, or suffer from the changes in ourselves. So science is also part
early warning system, but only if it is used effectively and
efficiently.
Just
experiencing something doesn't guarantee that
you will understand it, or learn from it, or benefit from it.
That is why knowledge is so extremely important, because
knowledge helps us understand our experiences a lot better.
You have to see inward as well as see outward. Science helps us
to define
reality or
define what is
perceived to be real.
Science also helps us define
cause and effect, which is
extremely important to everyone. And just because we know how
something works does not mean that we actually know "why" it
works, or do we fully understand the dangers, because we don't know
everything. But we are learning a lot more now and we are
also learning faster now. And we are also
communicating more and we're
communicating faster. But we're not
efficient or effective
enough in order to benefit from our increased speed. So science
needs to solve this problem before we waste this momentum and
miss our chance in creating a better world for everyone.
Sometimes if you're moving too fast you may fly past important
information that you need in order to
understand something. But luckily,
Science doesn't only speed up our ability to learn, science can
also be used to
slow us down, so that we can see more details
and become more and more
aware, so that we can make better choices and make better decisions.
But
just like every tool in our world, tools can be misused. So
science must explain the
proper uses of our
technologies and the proper
uses of our accumulated knowledge. Science must also explain the dangers of misusing our tools by creating a
good
Operators Manuals and good
Instruction Manuals that anyone can understand. Remember, science does not know
everything, but what science does know is extremely important,
and extremely
valuable.
Sometimes Progress is Slow
-
Some Ideas take time to be
understood or excepted.
Copernican Revolution in 1543 was the
paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic
model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth
stationary at the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with
the Sun at the center of the Solar System.
Scientific Revolution was the
emergence of modern science during the
early modern period (1600), when developments in mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the
views of society about nature.
"There are
reasons why things happen, and
knowing the reasons why certain things happen is the first step in
controlling these actions or adapting to these actions. That what science
does."
"If we don't keep moving forward,
we'll end up having to
start all over, again."
Why we need more Scientists. The internet has made us aware of all kinds of possibilities in
the science world. We have discovered so much. This is one of
the main reasons why we need more scientists. We need more
people researching all these new discoveries that we are making
everyday. So much more needs to be understood in order for us to
effectively utilized all this knowledge. It's a gold mine.
Science in the Classroom -
Teachers Science Lesson Plans
Project Exploration is a not-for-profit educational
program whose goal is to "change the face of science" by encouraging
interest in science among students—especially girls and minorities—who
traditionally have not found effective career routes into scientific
disciplines.
Next Generation Science Standards
We have discovered
order in our universe, but that does not say that order is
present everywhere or that
order is always a
constant, so we must always proceed with
caution and care.
Do not Accept or Reject claims at Face Value, but withhold
Judgment until Sufficient Evidence is available to make a decision, if
time is allowed.
Validity -
Accuracy -
Reasoning
Empirical
is the knowledge or source of knowledge acquired by means of the
senses, particularly by
observation and experimentation.
Reality.
Skepticism -
Questioning -
Beliefs -
Science Research Fraud
You don't have to be a
physicist
or a
rocket scientist in order to use scientific methods.
These skills are very useful for anyone who cares about
improving themselves or improving their surroundings. Science
will also increase a persons awareness about themselves and the
world, exposing a sea of possibilities.
Scientists should not just try to impress people with
knowledge, they should also give people the facts. One of the favorite
lines that scientists like to use is "You are made of the same elements as
a
Star.
You are star dust". No, I'm much more
then just star dust. Just because I share many of the same genes as a
monkey, this does not make me a monkey. And just because my body is 90
percent microbes this does not make me a microbe. Scientist should tell
people more about the elements and the percentages, after that, then they
can share how wonderful it is to have
things in common. We want to
inspire
learning, not just impress people with wonder.
"Science may not have all the answers, but
it will help you to understand things a little better, so that
maybe you will find the answers that you need. This is what we
found to be true, but every situation is different, so it might
not be true for you."
Science is a Language all its own. I'm
bilingual, but my other
language is an unspoken language, it's called
computer programming language. I use symbols and characters to
communicate instructions to computerized machines. But they are
more then just machines. Computers are one of the most
incredible tools that man has ever made,
besides language.
computers are an
extension of
human intelligence. Computers provide us with more
processing abilities and more memory capacities then any other
time in human history. These computerized machines are humans
analytical partner that aids us in understanding ourselves, and
our world. Humans quest for knowledge now has a powerful tool, a
tool that gives us endless potential. And with the
internet, we can now for the first time combine the collective
wisdom, knowledge and experiences of millions of people from all
over the world. We no longer need to depend on one country, or
on one leader, or on one government. Because we now have the
collective strength of each other. And together we will create a
better world for everyone. So, what does your language do?
Zero's and
Ones, On or Off.
If I learned how to speak Spanish I could speak to 518 million
more people then I do now. Knowing how to speak Computer Language
I can now communicate with 2 billion personal computers and
3 billion
internet users.
Communication.
"When you can
Convert
Atoms into a
Language, then you can do almost anything, like communicate to
the
Universe."
We connect to each other through particles. Calls and texts ride
flecks of light, Web sites and photographs load on electrons. All
communication is, essentially, physical. Information is recorded and
broadcast on actual objects, even those we cannot see.
Science Films
Richard
Feynman: The Pleasure Of Finding Things Out (video)
BBC The
Story Of Science Power, Proof And Passion (youtube)
Sci-Show (youtube channel)
What is One Degree?
(youtube) -
Temperature
Race for
Absolute Zero (youtube)
Nottingham Science (youtube)
Science
Under Attack BBC Horizon (youtube)
Tyler DeWitt (youtube)
The Genius
of Britain (youtube)
Sixty Symbols
(youtube)
K-12
Science (youtube)
Award Winning Teen Age Science in Action (video)
this is
why teaching science is important
Laura Snyder; The Philosophical Breakfast Club (video)
E=Mc2
Einstein's Big Idea (youtube)
Sixty
Symbols (youtube)
The
Atom Smashers (PBS) -
Atoms
Sap Science (youtube)
TROM - 1.1
Science (youtube)
E. O. Wilson: Advice to Young Scientists (video)
Proto G (youtube)
Tal Golesworthy: How I Repaired my own Heart (video) -
Exstent -
Aortic Root Support
Beau Lotto
+ Amy O'Toole: Science is for everyone, kids included (youtube)
Food
Science • Liquid Nitrogen Under Vacuum • ChefSteps
(youtube)
Asap Science (youtube)
Thought (youtube)
The Geek Group (youtube)
Veritasium (youtube)
Science Channel (youtube)
Kreosan (youtube)
Janet Iwasa: How Animations can help Scientists Test a
Hypothesis (video)
Engineer Guy Video (youtube)
Schlieren
Optics optical technique that allows us to see small changes
in the index of
refraction
in air.
DNews
Channel (youtube)
Pure Science Specials (youtube)
Applied Science (youtube channel)
The
Scientific Method: Steps, Terms and Examples (youtube)
In a Nutshell – Kurzgesagt
(youtube)
Physics
Woman (youtube)
Science Online (youtube)
Generation
Genius is online Science Videos and Lessons For K-8. Try it free. Get
instant access to hours of fun, standards-based videos, reading material,
quiz games, simple DIY activities & more.
Cells -
Universe
The Journal of
Visualized Experiments Jove is a database of more than four
thousand videos, with about eighty more added each month. They
are usually between ten and fifteen minutes long, and they range
in subject from biology and chemistry to neuroscience and
medicine.
Sci-Show
Science
Videos should not be confusing -
Rockwell
Turbo Encabulator Version 2 (youtube)
Science News -
Documentaries -
Online Education Sources
-
Science
Photo Library -
Science Photos -
Science Resources
and Tools.
Turboencabulator: The original machine had a base-plate
of prefabulated amulite, surmounted by a
malleable logarithmic casing in such a way that the two spurving
bearings were in a direct line with the pentametric fan. The
main winding was of the normal lotus-o-delta type placed in
panendermic semi-boloid slots in the stator, every seventh
conductor being connected by a nonreversible trem'e pipe to the
differential girdlespring on the 'up' end of the grammeters.
Unilateral Phase Detractor.
Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science.
Jargon.
Science Resources
Science Tools - Science Equipment
Scientific Instrument is an instrument used for scientific
purposes. Most are
measuring instruments. They may be specifically
designed, constructed and refined for the purpose. Over time, instruments
have become more accurate and precise. Scientific instruments are part
of
laboratory equipment, but are considered more sophisticated and more
specialized than other
measuring instruments as scales, rulers,
chronometers, thermometers or even
waveform generators. They are
increasingly based upon the integration of
computers to improve and
simplify control, enhance and extend instrumental functions, conditions,
parameter adjustments and data sampling, collection, resolution, analysis
(both during and post-process), storage and retrieval.
Calibration.
Equipment Types List (wiki)
Chemistry Sets -
Experiment
Kits -
Lab Tools
Engineering Tools -
Prototypes -
Drawings
Electronic Test Equipment is used to create signals and capture
responses from electronic devices under test (DUTs). In this way, the
proper operation of the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be
traced. Use of electronic test equipment is essential to any serious work
on electronics systems. Practical electronics engineering and assembly
requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment
ranging from the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light
consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and
sophisticated such as automatic test equipment (ATE). ATE often includes
many of these instruments in real and simulated forms. Generally, more
advanced test gear is necessary when developing circuits and systems than
is needed when doing production testing or when troubleshooting existing
production units in the field.
Little
Devices Science Kits
Science
Tools and Science Equipment
Arduino -
Aliexpress -
Apex
Electronic
DIY Research -
Research Resources
Little Bits
has 60 modules and growing. Every module works with every other
in millions of combinations.
FORMcard is a handy, pocket sized card of meltable
bio-plastic that can be used to make things and fix things.
Wolfram Data Science Platform. Take numerical, textual, image, GIS or
other data and give it the Wolfram treatment, carrying out a full
spectrum of data science analysis and
visualization and
automatically generating rich
interactive reports—all powered by the revolutionary knowledge-based
Wolfram Language.
Curious Minds -
Keysight -
Analog
Open Builds
Part Store
Neuroscience (brain) -
Human to Human Interface
-
Interfaces
Computer Components -
Surplus
Center -
Spare Parts
Norton
Sales Inc
3D Printing -
Learn to Code
Technology News
-
Science Education
Games and Toys for Learning
Science Toys for Learning
Using Toys to Teach Physics
Home
Training Tools
Backyard Brains
Scientifics Online
Science for Students
Poly Science
Science
Kits
Science Tools and Parts
Radio
Shack DIY
Kinoma Create
Electronic
Modules for Prototyping and Play
Makey Makey
Clip-it using plastic bottle caps to make
molecules
Conductive
Ink (wiki)
Bare
Conductive
Kate Stone: DJ Decks made of Paper (video)
Cannybots
Infento
Rides
DIY Kit for the Connected Life
Elemental Scientific
E Science
Labs
Science
Buddies
P-Tech, Pathways in Technology
Instrumentation Today is useful content & resources for
Instrumentation engineers and professionals.
Microscopes - Seeing Small Things
Microscope
is an
instrument used to
see objects that are
too small to be seen by the
naked eye.
Optical Microscope or light microscope, is a type of
microscope which uses visible
light and a system of lenses to magnify
images of
small samples.
Digital Microscope is a variation of a traditional
optical microscope that uses
optics and a digital camera to output an
image to a monitor, sometimes by means of software running on a computer.
Magnify is to enlargement of an object in
an image. To increase in size, volume or significance.
Magnifying Glass is an instrument made of
convex glass that is used to magnify
things and make them appear to be bigger and larger then they really are.
Resolution.
Magnifier is a scientific
instrument that magnifies an image.
Telescopes
(optics).
Loupe is
a small magnifying glass, usually mounted in an
eyepiece, often used by
jewelers and watchmakers.
Microscopic is something that is invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
Underwater microscopy for in situ studies of benthic ecosystems
(youtube) -
Benthic Ecosystems.
Microscopy is the technical field of
using microscopes to
view objects and areas of
objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical,
electron, and scanning probe microscopy.
Optical microscopy and
electron microscopy
involve the diffraction, reflection, or refraction of electromagnetic
radiation/electron beams interacting with the specimen, and the collection
of the scattered radiation or another signal in order to create an image.
This process may be carried out by wide-field irradiation of the sample
(for example standard light microscopy and transmission electron
microscopy) or by scanning a fine beam over the sample (for example
confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy).
Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a scanning probe
with the surface of the object of interest. The development of microscopy
revolutionized biology, gave rise to the field of histology and so remains
an essential technique in the life and physical sciences. Microscopy is the
science of
investigating small objects and structures using such an instrument.
Spectrometer is an apparatus to measure a
spectrum
that shows intensity as a function of wavelength, of frequency, of energy,
of momentum, or of mass.
SCiO: Molecular Sensor, Optical Sensor, Spectrometer.
Photoresistor is a light-controlled variable resistor.
Smartphone
Microscopes -
Advanced Microscopes (physics)
Imaging Machines (EEG)
-
Telescopes
(optics)
Position Sensor is any device that permits position
measurement.
Photoelectric Sensor or photo eye, is an equipment
used to discover the distance, absence, or presence of an object by using
a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric receiver.
Sensors.
Work Shops
TechShop is a chain of member-based workshops that lets
people of all skill levels come in and use industrial tools and
equipment to build their own projects.
Tech Shop.
Workshop a room or building which provides both the
area and tools (or machinery) that may be required for the
manufacture or repair of manufactured goods.
Citizen Science.
Hackerspace
-
Science Space
Nextfab
Makerspace
Maker Faire
Rulof Italian Maker (youtube)
Cesar Harada: How I teach kids to love science (video)
Generator
Vermont
Frederickswerken
Hub Space
National Lab Network
Thrill Laboratory
Open Design City
Lighthouse
Creativity Lab
Creative
Learning Systems
Harvard Innovation
Lab (i-lab) is a unique collaboration and education space designed to
foster entrepreneurship and innovation across Harvard.
Experience Learning -
Collaboration Knowledge
Ideas -
Innovation -
Inventions -
Funding for Ideas
Amazing Science
Toys/Gadgets 2 (youtube) -
Mr. Mind Blow
Fab Lab is a
small-scale workshop offering (personal)
digital fabrication. A fab lab is
typically equipped with an array of flexible computer-controlled tools
that cover several different length scales and various materials, with the
aim to make "almost anything". This includes technology-enabled products
generally perceived as limited to mass production. While fab labs have yet
to compete with mass production and its associated economies of scale in
fabricating widely distributed products, they have already shown the
potential to empower individuals to create smart devices for themselves.
These devices can be tailored to local or personal needs in ways that are
not practical or economical using mass production. The fab lab movement is
closely aligned with the
DIY, the open
source hardware and the free and open source movement, and shares
philosophy as well as technology with them.
Fairs - Museums - Festivals - Displays
Science Fair Ideas -
Science Fair Projects -
Science Fair Project
Project Display Board -
Display Boards
Science Fair Poster
Boards (youtube)
Interactive
Simulations -
Presentations
Science Festivals -
Science Museum -
Children's Museums -
Intel International Science and Engineering Fair.
Google Science Fair
Robotics -
Robots
Science Made Simple
Create Research
Teams
Digital
Media Learning Competition
Technology
Challenge Programs
Ecosystem
of Creators and inventors
Young
Scientist Challenge 2013: Peyton Robertson
(youtube) -
Young Scientist Challenge.
My Potato
Project; The Importance of "Organic"
(youtube) -
Organic -
GMO
EPA Factsheet (pdf)
Exploratorium
Exploravision
competition for K-12 students.
Think Zone
Solve Puzzles for
Science
Visual Science
Jove: Journal of
Visualized Experiments
Elsevier
Society for Science
Automatic Pool
Stick vs. Strangers (youtube) - See good skills and knowledge of
different technologies and what great trouble shooting skills look like.
International Electron
Devices Meeting (IEDM) is the world’s preeminent forum for reporting
technological breakthroughs in the areas of semiconductor and electronic
device technology, design, manufacturing, physics, and modeling. IEDM is
the flagship conference for nanometer-scale CMOS transistor technology,
advanced memory, displays,
sensors,
MEMS devices, novel quantum and
nano-scale devices and phenomenology,
optoelectronics,
devices for power and energy harvesting, high-speed devices, as well as
process technology and device modeling and simulation.
ARDX Arduino Starter Kit
-
Experimentation Kit for Arduino (Uno R3) - v1.3 ,
Tackle 13 Different Projects w/ This Fully-Stocked Beginner's Toolkit.
Evive: Electronic Prototyping Platform - Learn & build your projects
easily, debug them smartly. #Arduino #Robotics #IoT #Embedded #STEM.
MATRIX Creator: IoT Computer Vision Dev Board #Pi - AI on a Pi. Build
your own Amazon Echo + endless IoT apps with a dev board for Raspberry Pi.
Learn, Teach and Make with the Tinusaur - Small microcontroller board
that could run Arduino and help you learn, teach others and make things.
RoboHERO by TTRobotix is a Arduino-based Intelligent, Interactive and
Programmable Humanoid
Robot for Kids,
Makers & Educators.
Tinylab: Prototype easier than ever
Play Piper
PC Boards Components -
Building Blocks
WSU physicists write with light into a crystal to create an electrical
circuit, opening up the possibility of transparent, three-dimensional
electronics that, like an Etch A Sketch, can be erased and reconfigured.
Electronic Circuits.
MIT
Researchers Have Developed Modular Blocks That Can Be Configured To Make
Different Diagnostic Devices (youtube)
Sensors -
Environmental Monitoring -
Education Games and Toys
Citizen Science - DIY Science -
Robotic Building Kits -
Chemistry