Computers
Computer is a
machine for
performing
calculations
automatically.
A machine that can be
instructed to
carry out
sequences of
arithmetic or
logical operations automatically via
computer programming. A computer is
a person who is an
expert at
calculation or an
expert at
operating calculating machines.
"A Keen Impassioned
Beauty of a Great Machine" - "A Bicycle for the Brain"
Hardware -
IC's -
Code -
Software
-
OS -
VPN -
Servers -
Networks -
Super Computers -
Memory
-
Processing
You can learn several different subjects at the same time when you're
learning about computers. You can learn Problem Solving, Math, Languages,
Communication, Technology, Electricity, Physics and Intelligence, just to name a few.
Basic Computer
Skills -
Computer Literacy
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History of Computers
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Films about Computers -
Computer
Types
Computer Science is the study of the theory,
experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and
use of computers. It is the scientific and practical approach to
computation and its applications and the systematic study of the
feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical
procedures or
algorithms that underlie the acquisition,
representation,
processing,
storage,
communication of, and
access to
information. An
alternate, more succinct definition of computer science is the study of
automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist
specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational
systems.
Pioneers in Computer Science (wiki).
Computer Science Books (wiki) -
List of Computer Books (wiki)
Theoretical
Computer Science
is a division or subset of general computer science and mathematics that
focuses on more abstract or mathematical aspects of computing and includes
the
theory of computation, which is the branch that deals with how
efficiently problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an
algorithm. The field is divided into three major branches: automata theory
and language, computability theory, and computational complexity theory,
which are linked by the question: "What are the fundamental capabilities
and limitations of computers?".
Doctor of Computer Science is a doctorate in Computer
Science by dissertation or multiple
research papers.
Computer Engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of
electrical engineering and computer science
required to develop computer
hardware and
software. Computer engineers usually have training
in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design,
and hardware–software integration instead of only software engineering or
electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware
and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual
microcontrollers, microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers,
to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how
computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the
larger picture. Usual tasks involving computer engineers include writing
software and firmware for embedded microcontrollers, designing VLSI chips,
designing analog sensors, designing mixed signal circuit boards, and
designing
operating systems. Computer engineers are also suited for
robotics research, which relies heavily on using digital systems to
control and monitor electrical systems like motors, communications, and
sensors. In many institutions, computer engineering students are allowed
to choose areas of in-depth study in their junior and senior year, because
the full breadth of knowledge used in the design and application of
computers is beyond the scope of an undergraduate degree. Other
institutions may require engineering students to complete one or two years
of General Engineering before declaring computer engineering as their
primary focus.
Telephone -
Remote Work
Computer Architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the
functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some
definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and
programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. In
other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set
architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and
implementation.
How Does a Computer Work -
Help Fixing PC's.
Minimalism in computing refers to the application of
minimalist philosophies and
principles in the
design and use of
hardware and software. Minimalism, in this sense, means designing systems
that use the least hardware and software resources possible.
Computer Types
General Purpose Computer is a computer
that is
designed to be able to carry out many different tasks. Desktop
computers and laptops are examples of general purpose computers. Among
other things, they can be used to access the internet.
Personal Computer is a multi-purpose computer whose size,
capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. Personal
computers are intended to be operated directly by an
end user, rather than
by a computer expert or technician. Unlike large costly
minicomputer and
mainframes, time-sharing by many people at the same time is not used with personal computers.
First Computers -
History of
Computers
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Super Computers -
Artificial
Intelligence
Smartphones -
Remote Communication -
Great Inventions
-
Technology Advancement
Analog Computer is a computer which is used to process
analog data.
Analog computers store
data in a continuous form of physical quantities
and perform calculations with the help of measures. It is quite different
from the
digital computer, which makes use of symbolic numbers to
represent results. analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the
continuous variation aspect of physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities (analog signals) to model the problem
being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities
symbolically and by discrete values of both time and amplitude (
digital
signals). Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide
rules and nomograms are the simplest, while naval gunfire control
computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among the most
complicated. Systems for process control and protective relays used analog
computation to perform control and protective functions. Analog computers
were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after the
advent of digital computers, because at the time they were typically much
faster, but they started to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and
1960s, although they remained in use in some specific applications, such
as aircraft flight simulators, the flight computer in aircraft, and for
teaching control systems in universities. Perhaps the most relatable
example of analog computers are mechanical watches where the continuous
and periodic rotation of interlinked gears drives the seconds, minutes and
hours needles in the clock. More complex applications, such as aircraft
flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, remained the domain of
analog computing (and hybrid computing) well into the 1980s, since digital
computers were insufficient for the task.
Future Computers
Will Be Radically Different (youtube) -
Matrix Multiplication -
Neural Network
-
Image
Recognition -
Algorithms
Analog or
linear circuits typically use only a few components and are thus some
of the simplest types of ICs. Generally, analog circuits are connected to
devices that collect signals from the environment or send signals back to
the environment. Analog circuit works with analog signals. The full signal
(a continuously variable signal) in the form of a wave has more data in
it—because it is a continuous wave—as opposed to digitized waveform that
is made up of binary ups and downs (or pulses).
We
live in an analog world. A linear circuit is a type of analog
circuit that is designed to make a scaled copy of a waveform meaning that
the amplitude of the output of the linear circuit is a fraction, or a
multiple of the amplitude of the input waveform. The output amplitude is
greater than the input amplitude, and the circuit is an amplifier.
Analogue Electronics are electronic systems with a continuously
variable signal, in contrast to digital electronics where signals usually
take only two levels. The term "analogue" describes the proportional
relationship between a signal and a voltage or current that represents the
signal. The word analogue is derived from the Greek word analogos meaning
"proportional".
Biological Computers -
Computing Types
Ionic liquid-based reservoir computing: The key to efficient and
flexible edge computing. Researchers have designed a tunable physical
reservoir device based on the dielectric relaxation at an electrode-ionic
liquid interface.
Physical reservoir computing, which relies on the transient response
of physical systems, is an attractive machine learning framework that can
perform high-speed processing of time-series signals at low power.
However, PRC systems have low tunability, limiting the signals it can
process. Now, researchers from Japan present ionic liquids as an easily
tunable physical reservoir device that can be optimized to process signals
over a broad range of timescales by simply changing their viscosity.
10 types of computers include personal computers, desktops,
laptops, tablets, hand-held computers, servers, workstations, mainframes,
wearable computers and supercomputers.
Portable Computer was a computer designed to be easily moved from one
place to another and included a display and keyboard.
Operating Systems.
Laptop
is a small
portable personal computer
with a "clamshell" form factor, typically having a thin LCD or LED
computer screen mounted on the inside of the upper lid of the clamshell
and an alphanumeric keyboard on the inside of the lower lid. The clamshell
is opened up to use the computer.
Laptops are folded shut for
transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Its name comes from
lap, as it was deemed to be placed on a person's lap when being used.
Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks
(the former being bigger and heavier than the latter), as of 2014, there
is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as
at
work, in
education, for
playing games, I
nternet surfing, for personal
multimedia, and general home computer use. Laptops combine all the
input/output components and capabilities of a desktop computer, including
the display screen, small speakers, a keyboard, hard disk drive, optical
disc drive, pointing devices (such as a touchpad or trackpad), a
processor, and memory into a single unit. Most modern laptops feature
integrated webcams and built-in microphones, while many also have
touchscreens. Laptops can be powered either from an internal battery or by
an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such
as the processor speed and memory capacity, significantly vary between
different types, makes, models and price points. Design elements, form
factor and construction can also vary significantly between models
depending on intended use. Examples of specialized models of laptops
include rugged notebooks for use in construction or military applications,
as well as low production cost laptops such as those from the
One Laptop
per Child (OLPC) organization, which incorporate features like solar
charging and semi-flexible components not found on most laptop computers.
Portable computers, which later developed into modern laptops, were
originally considered to be a small niche market, mostly for specialized
field applications, such as in the military, for accountants, or for
traveling sales representatives. As the portable computers evolved into
the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes.
Tablet Computer is a
mobile device, typically with a mobile operating
system and touchscreen display processing circuitry, and a rechargeable
battery in a single thin, flat package. Tablets, being computers, do what
other personal computers do, but lack some input/output (I/O) abilities
that others have. Modern tablets largely resemble modern
Smartphones, the only
differences being that tablets are relatively larger than smartphones,
with screens 7 inches (18 cm) or larger, measured diagonally, and may not
support access to a cellular network.
Desktop
Computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single
location on or near a desk or table due to its size and power
requirements. The most common configuration has a case that houses the
power supply, motherboard (a printed circuit board with a microprocessor
as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, bus, and other electronic
components), disk storage (usually one or more hard disk drives, optical
disc drives, and in early models a floppy disk drive); a keyboard and
mouse for input; and a computer monitor, speakers, and, often, a printer
for output. The case may be oriented horizontally or vertically and placed
either underneath, beside, or on top of a desk.
Workstation is a special computer designed for technical or scientific
applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they
are commonly connected to a local area network and run multi-user
operating systems. The term workstation has also been used loosely to
refer to everything from a mainframe computer terminal to a PC connected
to a network, but the most common form refers to the group of hardware
offered by several current and defunct companies such as Sun Microsystems,
Silicon Graphics, Apollo Computer, DEC, HP, NeXT and IBM which opened the
door for the 3D graphics animation revolution of the late 1990s.
Industrial PC is
a computer intended for industrial purposes (production of goods and
services), with a form factor between a
nettop
and a server rack. Industrial PCs have higher dependability and precision
standards, and are generally more expensive than consumer electronics.
They often use complex instruction sets, such as x86, where reduced
instruction sets such as ARM would otherwise be used.
Controllers.
Computing Types
Bio-Inspired Computing is a field of study that loosely
knits together subfields related to the topics of connectionism, social
behaviour and emergence. It is often closely related to the field of
artificial intelligence, as many of its pursuits can be linked to machine
learning. It relies heavily on the fields of biology, computer science and
mathematics. Briefly put, it is the use of computers to model the living
phenomena, and simultaneously the study of life to improve the usage of
computers. Biologically inspired computing is a major subset of natural
computation.
Biological
Computation is the study of the computations performed by
natural biota, including the subject matter of systems biology. The design
of algorithms inspired by the computational methods of biota. The design
and engineering of manufactured computational devices using synthetic
biology components. Computer methods for the analysis of biological data,
elsewhere called computational biology. When biological computation refers
to using biology to build computers, it is a subfield of computer science
and is distinct from the interdisciplinary science of bioinformatics which
simply uses computers to better understand biology.
Computational Biology involves the development and
application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical
modeling and
computational simulation techniques to the study of
biological, behavioral, and social systems. The field is broadly defined
and includes foundations in computer science, applied mathematics,
animation, statistics, biochemistry, chemistry, biophysics, molecular
biology, genetics, genomics, ecology, evolution, anatomy, neuroscience,
and visualization.
Computational biology is different from biological
computation, which is a subfield of computer science and computer
engineering using bioengineering and biology to build computers, but is
similar to bioinformatics, which is an interdisciplinary science using
computers to store and process biological data.
Information.
Biological Computers are made of living
cells. Instead of carrying electrical wiring, these computers use chemical
inputs and other biologically derived molecules, such as proteins and
DNA, to perform computational
calculations that involve storing,
retrieving and processing data.
DNA
Computing is a branch of computing which uses DNA, biochemistry, and
molecular biology hardware, instead of the traditional silicon-based
computer technologies. Research and development in this area concerns
theory, experiments, and applications of
DNA computing. The term "molectronics"
has sometimes been used, but this term had already been used for an
earlier technology, a then-unsuccessful rival of the first integrated
circuits; this term has also been used more generally, for molecular-scale
electronic technology.
Chemical
Computer is an
unconventional
computer based on a semi-solid
chemical soup where
data are represented by varying concentrations of chemicals. The
computations are performed by naturally occurring chemical reactions.
Computational Chemistry is a branch of
chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical
problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into
computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of
molecules, groups of molecules, and solids. It is essential because, apart
from relatively recent results concerning the hydrogen molecular ion (dihydrogen
cation, see references therein for more details), the quantum many-body
problem cannot be solved analytically, much less in closed form. While
computational results normally complement the information obtained by
chemical experiments, it can in some cases predict hitherto unobserved
chemical phenomena. It is widely used in the design of new drugs and
materials.
UW engineers borrow from electronics to build largest circuits to date in
living eukaryotic cells. Living cells must constantly process
information to keep track of the changing world around them and arrive at
an appropriate response.
Model
of Computation is the definition of the set of allowable
operations used in computation and their respective costs. It is used for
measuring the complexity of an algorithm in execution time and or memory
space: by assuming a certain model of computation, it is possible to
analyze the
computational resources required or to discuss the limitations
of algorithms or computers.
Computer Simulation -
Virtual Reality -
Turing
Machine
Ubiquitous Computing is a concept in software engineering
and computer science where computing is made to appear anytime and
everywhere. In contrast to desktop computing, ubiquitous computing can
occur using any device, in any location, and in any format. A user
interacts with the computer, which can exist in many different forms,
including laptop computers, tablets and terminals in everyday objects such
as a fridge or a pair of glasses. The underlying technologies to support
ubiquitous computing include Internet, advanced middleware, operating
system, mobile code, sensors, microprocessors, new I/O and user
interfaces, networks, mobile protocols, location and positioning and new
materials.
Quantum Computer (super computers)
Parallel Computing
is a type of computation in which
many calculations or the execution of
processes are
carried out
simultaneously.
Large problems can often be
divided into smaller ones, which can then be
solved at the same time.
There are several different
forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction-level, data, and
task parallelism. Parallelism has been employed for many years, mainly in
high-performance computing, but interest in it has grown lately due to the
physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. As power consumption
(and consequently heat generation) by computers has become a concern in
recent years, parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in
computer architecture, mainly in the form of
multi-core processors.
Working Together -
Multitasking.
Task
Parallelism is a form of parallelization of computer code across
multiple processors in parallel computing environments. Task parallelism
focuses on distributing tasks—concurrently performed by processes or
threads—across different processors. It contrasts to data parallelism as
another form of parallelism.
Human Brain Parallel Processing
Human Centered Computing studies the design, development,
and deployment of mixed-initiative human-computer systems. It is emerged
from the convergence of multiple disciplines that are concerned both with
understanding human beings and with the design of computational artifacts.
Human-centered computing is closely related to human-computer interaction
and information science. Human-centered computing is usually concerned
with systems and practices of technology use while human-computer
interaction is more focused on ergonomics and the usability of computing
artifacts and information science is focused on practices surrounding the
collection, manipulation, and use of information.
Distributed
Computing components located on
networked computers communicate and
coordinate their actions by
passing messages. The components interact with each other in order to
achieve a common goal.
Distributed Workforce.
Edge Computing is a distributed computing paradigm that brings
computation and data storage closer to the sources of data. This is
expected to improve response times and save bandwidth. Edge computing is
an architecture rather than a specific technology, and a topology- and
location-sensitive form of distributed computing.
Cloud Computing is a type of Internet-based computing that
provides shared computer processing resources and data to computers and
other devices on demand. It is a model for enabling ubiquitous,
on-demand
access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g.,
computer
networks,
servers,
storage, applications and services), which can
be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort. Cloud
computing and storage solutions provide users and enterprises with various
capabilities to store and process their data in either privately owned, or
third-party
data centers that may be located far from the user–ranging in
distance from across a city to across the world. Cloud computing relies on
sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economy of scale, similar to
a utility (like the electricity grid) over an electricity network.
Cloud Computing Tools.
Reversible Computing
is a model of computing where the computational process to some
extent is reversible, i.e., time-invertible. In a computational model that
uses deterministic transitions from one state of the abstract machine to
another, a necessary condition for reversibility is that the relation of
the mapping from states to their successors must be one-to-one. Reversible
computing is generally considered an unconventional form of computing.
Adaptable -
Compatible
Natural Computing is a terminology introduced to encompass three
classes of methods: 1) those that take inspiration from nature for the
development of novel problem-solving techniques; 2) those that are based
on the use of computers to synthesize natural phenomena; and 3) those that
employ natural materials (e.g., molecules) to compute. The main fields of
research that compose these three branches are artificial neural networks,
evolutionary algorithms, swarm intelligence, artificial immune systems,
fractal geometry, artificial life, DNA computing, and quantum computing,
among others.
Hardware
Hardware is the collection of
physical components that
constitute a
computer system. Computer hardware is the physical parts or
components of a computer, such as
monitor,
keyboard, computer data
storage,
hard disk drive (HDD), graphic card, sound card,
memory (RAM),
motherboard, and so on, all of which are tangible physical objects. By
contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware.
Hardware is directed by the
software to execute any command or
instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable
computing system.
Computer Hardware includes the physical, tangible parts or components
of a computer, such as the cabinet,
central
processing unit, monitor, keyboard,
computer data
storage, graphic card, sound card, speakers and
motherboard. By contrast,
software is
instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware is so-termed
because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes or modifications;
whereas software is "soft" because it is easy to update or change.
Intermediate between software and hardware is "firmware", which is
software that is strongly coupled to the particular hardware of a computer
system and thus the most difficult to change but also among the most
stable with respect to consistency of interface. The progression from
levels of "hardness" to "softness" in computer systems parallels a
progression of layers of abstraction in computing. Hardware is typically
directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A
combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system,
although other systems exist with only hardware components.
Hardware
Architecture refers to the identification of a
system's
physical components and their interrelationships. This description, often
called a hardware design model, allows hardware designers to understand
how their components fit into a system architecture and provides to
software component designers important information needed for software
development and integration. Clear definition of a hardware architecture
allows the various traditional engineering disciplines (e.g., electrical
and mechanical engineering) to work more effectively together to develop
and manufacture new machines, devices and components.
Processors
Computer Architecture is a set of rules and methods that
describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer
systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the
capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular
implementation. In other definitions computer architecture involves
instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic
design, and implementation.
Memory
Computer Memory
refers to the computer hardware devices involved to
store information
for immediate use in a computer; it is synonymous with the term "
primary
storage". Computer memory operates at a high speed, for example
random-access memory (RAM), as a distinction from storage that
provides slow-to-access program and data storage but offers higher
capacities. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred
to secondary storage, through a memory management technique called
"
virtual memory". An archaic synonym for memory is store. The term "
memory",
meaning "primary storage" or "main memory", is often associated with
addressable semiconductor memory, i.e.
integrated circuits
consisting of silicon-based
transistors, used for
example as primary storage but also other purposes in computers and other
digital electronic devices. There are two main kinds of semiconductor
memory,
volatile and
non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash
memory (used as secondary memory) and
ROM,
PROM,
EPROM and
EEPROM memory
(used for storing firmware such as BIOS). Examples of volatile memory are
primary storage, which is typically dynamic random-access memory (DRAM),
and fast CPU cache memory, which is typically static random-access memory
(SRAM) that is fast but energy-consuming, offering lower memory areal
density than
DRAM. Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory
cells or bistable flip-flops, each storing one bit (0 or 1).
Flash memory
organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple bits per
cell (called MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory cells are grouped into
words of fixed word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit.
Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible
to store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies that processor
registers normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one
word and do not include an addressing mechanism. Typical secondary storage
devices are hard disk drives and
solid-state
drives.
Magnetic Memory (memristors).
Memory Cell in computing is the fundamental building block of computer
memory. The memory cell is an electronic circuit that stores one bit of
binary information and it must be set to store a logic 1 (high voltage
level) and reset to store a logic 0 (low voltage level). Its value is
maintained/stored until it is changed by the set/reset process. The value
in the memory cell can be accessed by reading it.
Brain Memory -
Data Storage
-
Knowledge Preservation.
Random-Access Memory is a form of
computer data storage
which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general
speed of a system. A
RAM device allows data items to be
read or written in almost the same amount of time.
Working Memory.
Dynamic Random-Access Memory is a type of random access semiconductor
memory that stores each bit of data in a separate tiny capacitor within an
integrated circuit. The capacitor can either be charged or discharged;
these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit,
conventionally called 0 and 1. The electric charge on the capacitors
slowly leaks off, so without intervention the data on the chip would soon
be lost. To prevent this, DRAM requires an external memory refresh circuit
which periodically rewrites the data in the capacitors, restoring them to
their original charge. This refresh process is the defining characteristic
of dynamic random-access memory, in contrast to static random-access
memory (SRAM) which does not require data to be refreshed. Unlike flash
memory, DRAM is volatile memory (vs. non-volatile memory), since it loses
its data quickly when power is removed. However, DRAM does exhibit limited
data remanence. DRAM is widely used in digital electronics where low-cost
and high-capacity memory is required. One of the largest applications for
DRAM is the main memory (colloquially called the "RAM") in modern
computers and graphics cards (where the "main memory" is called the
graphics memory). It is also used in many portable devices and video game
consoles. In contrast, SRAM, which is faster and more expensive than DRAM,
is typically used where speed is of greater concern than cost and size,
such as the cache memories in processors. Due to its need of a system to
perform refreshing, DRAM has more complicated circuitry and timing
requirements than SRAM, but it is much more widely used. The advantage of
DRAM is the structural simplicity of its memory cells: only one transistor
and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to four or six transistors
in SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high densities, making DRAM much
cheaper per bit. The transistors and capacitors used are extremely small;
billions can fit on a single memory chip. Due to the dynamic nature of its
memory cells, DRAM consumes relatively large amounts of power, with
different ways for managing the power consumption. DRAM had a 47% increase
in the price-per-bit in 2017, the largest jump in 30 years since the 45%
percent jump in 1988, while in recent years the price has been going down.
Universal Memory refers to a hypothetical computer data storage device
combining the cost benefits of DRAM, the speed of SRAM, the non-volatility
of flash memory along with infinite durability. Such a device, if it ever
becomes possible to develop, would have a far-reaching impact on the
computer market. Computers for most of their recent history have depended
on several different data storage technologies simultaneously as part of
their operation. Each one operates at a level in the memory hierarchy
where another would be unsuitable. A personal computer might include a few
megabytes of fast but volatile and expensive SRAM as the CPU cache,
several gigabytes of slower DRAM for program memory, and multiple hundreds
of gigabytes of the slow but non-volatile flash memory or a few terabytes
of "spinning platters" hard disk drive for long term storage.
Universal Memory can record or delete data using 100 times less energy
than Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and flash drives. It promises to
transform daily life with its ultra-low energy consumption, allowing
computers which do not need to boot up and which could sleep between key
strokes. While writing data to DRAM is fast and low-energy, the data is
volatile and must be continuously 'refreshed' to avoid it being lost: this
is clearly inconvenient and inefficient. Flash stores data robustly, but
writing and erasing is slow, energy intensive and deteriorates it, making
it unsuitable for working memory.
Read-Only Memory
is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic
devices. Data stored in
ROM can only be
modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly used to
store firmware (software that is closely tied to specific hardware, and
unlikely to need frequent updates) or application software in plug-in
cartridges.
OS.
Volatile Memory
is memory that
lasts only while the power is on, but when the power is
interrupted, the
stored data is quickly lost, and thus would be lost after
a restart. Volatile computer memory requires power to maintain the stored
information and only retains its contents while powered on.
Short Term Memory.
Non-Volatile
Memory is a type of computer memory that can retrieve stored
information even after having been power cycled (turned off and back on).
The opposite of non-volatile memory is
Volatile Memory which needs constant power in order to prevent data
from being erased.
Memory Error Correction.
Conductive Bridging Random Access Memory - CBRAM storing data in a
non-volatile or near-permanent way, to reduce the size and power
consumption of components.
Programmable Metallization Cell is a non-volatile computer memory
widely used flash memory, providing a combination of longer lifetimes,
lower power, and better memory density.
Flash
Memory is non-volatile computer storage medium that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed.
Jump Drive.
Multi-Level Cell
is a memory element capable of storing more than a single bit of
information, compared to a single-level cell (SLC) which can store only
one bit per memory element. Triple-level cells (TLC) and quad-level cells
(QLC) are versions of MLC memory, which can store 3 and 4 bits per cell,
respectively. Note that due to the convention, the name "multi-level cell"
is sometimes used specifically to refer to the "two-level cell", which is
slightly confusing. Overall, the memories are named as follows:
SLC (1 bit per cell) - fastest, more
reliable, but highest cost.
MLC (2 bits per
cell).
TLC (3 bits per cell).
QLC (4 bits per cell) - slowest, least
cost. Examples of MLC memories are MLC
NAND flash, MLC PCM (phase change memory), etc. For example, in SLC
NAND flash technology, each cell can exist in one of the two states,
storing one bit of information per cell. Most MLC NAND flash memory has
four possible states per cell, so it can store two bits of information per
cell. This reduces the amount of margin separating the states and results
in the possibility of more errors. Multi-level cells which are designed
for low error rates are sometimes called enterprise MLC (eMLC). There are
tools for modeling the area/latency/energy of MLC memories.
Solid-State
Storage is a type of non-volatile computer storage that stores and
retrieves digital information using only electronic circuits, without any
involvement of moving mechanical parts. This differs fundamentally from
the traditional electromechanical storage paradigm, which accesses data
using rotating or linearly moving media coated with magnetic material.
Solid-State
Drive is a
solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit
assemblies as memory to store data persistently. SSD technology primarily
uses electronic interfaces compatible with traditional block input/output
(I/O) hard disk drives (HDDs), which permit simple replacements in common
applications. New I/O interfaces like SATA Express and M.2 have been
designed to address specific requirements of the SSD technology.
SSDs have no moving mechanical components.
This distinguishes them from traditional electromechanical drives such as
hard disk drives (HDDs) or floppy disks, which contain spinning disks and
movable read/write heads. Compared with electromechanical drives, SSDs are
typically more resistant to physical shock, run silently, have quicker
access time and lower latency. However, while the price of SSDs has
continued to decline over time SSDs are (as of 2018) still more expensive
per unit of storage than HDDs and are expected to continue so into the
next decade.
Solid State Drive (amazon).
Scientists perfect technique to boost capacity of computer storage a
thousand-fold. New technique leads to world’s densest solid-state
memory that can store 45 million songs on the surface of a quarter.
Hard Disk Drive is a data storage device that uses magnetic storage to
store and retrieve
digital
information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters)
coated with magnetic material. The platters are paired with magnetic
heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write
data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a random-access manner,
meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any
order and not only sequentially. HDDs are a type of non-volatile storage,
retaining stored data even when powered off.
Storage Types.
NAND Gate is a logic gate which produces an output
which is false only if all its inputs are true; thus its output is
complement to that of the AND gate. A LOW (0) output results only if both
the inputs to the gate are HIGH (1); if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a
HIGH (1) output results. It is made using transistors and junction diodes.
Floating-gate MOSFET is a field-effect transistor, whose structure is
similar to a conventional MOSFET. The gate of the FGMOS is electrically
isolated, creating a floating node in DC, and a number of secondary gates
or inputs are deposited above the floating gate (FG) and are electrically
isolated from it. These inputs are only capacitively connected to the FG.
Since the FG is completely surrounded by highly resistive material, the
charge contained in it remains unchanged for long periods of time. Usually
Fowler-Nordheim tunneling and hot-carrier injection mechanisms are used to
modify the amount of charge stored in the FG.
Field-effect transistor is a
transistor that uses an electric field to
control the electrical behaviour of the device. FETs are also known as
unipolar transistors since they involve single-carrier-type operation.
Many different implementations of field effect transistors exist. Field
effect transistors generally display very high input impedance at low
frequencies. The conductivity between the drain and source terminals is
controlled by an electric field in the device, which is generated by the
voltage difference between the body and the gate of the device
Molecule that works as Flash Storage -
Macronix
EEPROM
stands for electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory and is a
type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices
to store relatively small amounts of data but allowing individual bytes to
be erased and reprogrammed.
Computer Data Storage is a technology consisting of computer
components and recording media that are used to retain digital data. It is
a core function and fundamental component of computers.
Knowledge Preservation.
Memory-Mapped File is a segment of virtual memory that has been
assigned a direct byte-for-byte correlation with some portion of a file or
file-like resource. This resource is typically a file that is physically
present on disk, but can also be a device, shared memory object, or other
resource that the operating system can reference through a file
descriptor. Once present, this correlation between the file and the
memory space permits applications to treat the mapped portion as if it
were primary memory.
Memory-Mapped I/O are two complementary methods of performing
input/output (I/O) between the CPU and peripheral devices in a computer.
An alternative approach is using dedicated I/O processors, commonly known
as channels on mainframe computers, which execute their own instructions.
Virtual Memory is a memory management technique that is implemented
using both hardware and software. It maps memory addresses used by a
program, called virtual addresses, into physical addresses in computer
memory. Main storage, as seen by a process or task, appears as a
contiguous address space or collection of contiguous segments. The
operating system manages virtual address spaces and the assignment of real
memory to virtual memory. Address translation hardware in the CPU, often
referred to as a memory management unit or MMU, automatically translates
virtual addresses to physical addresses. Software within the operating
system may extend these capabilities to provide a virtual address space
that can exceed the capacity of real memory and thus reference more memory
than is physically present in the computer. The primary benefits of
virtual memory include freeing applications from having to manage a shared
memory space, increased security due to memory isolation, and being able
to conceptually use more memory than might be physically available, using
the technique of paging.
Persistent
Memory is any method or apparatus for
efficiently
storing data structures such that they can continue to be accessed
using memory instructions or memory APIs even after the end of the process
that created or last modified them. Often confused with non-volatile
random-access memory (NVRAM), persistent memory is instead more closely
linked to the concept of persistence in its emphasis on program state that
exists outside the fault zone of the process that created it. Efficient,
memory-like access is the defining characteristic of persistent memory. It
can be provided using microprocessor memory instructions, such as load and
store. It can also be provided using APIs that implement remote direct
memory access verbs, such as RDMA read and RDMA write. Other
low-latency methods that allow byte-grain access to data also qualify.
Persistent memory capabilities extend beyond non-volatility of stored
bits. For instance, the loss of key metadata, such as page table entries
or other constructs that translate virtual addresses to physical
addresses, may render durable bits non-persistent. In this respect,
persistent memory resembles more abstract forms of computer storage, such
as file systems. In fact, almost all existing persistent memory
technologies implement at least a basic file system that can be used for
associating names or identifiers with stored extents, and at a minimum
provide file system methods that can be used for naming and allocating
such extents.
Magnetoresistive Random-Access Memory is a non-volatile random-access
memory technology available today that began its development in the 1990s.
Continued increases in density of existing memory technologies – notably
flash RAM and DRAM – kept it in a niche role in the market, but its
proponents believe that the advantages are so overwhelming that
magnetoresistive RAM will eventually become a dominant type of memory,
potentially even becoming a universal memory. It is currently in
production by Everspin, and other companies including GlobalFoundries and
Samsung have announced product plans.. A recent, comprehensive review
article on magnetoresistance and
magnetic random access memories is
available as an open access paper in Materials Toda.
Computer Memory (amazon) -
Internal Hard Drives
(amazon)
Laptop Computers (amazon) -
Desktop Computers (amazon)
Webopedia
has definitions to words, phrases and abbreviations related to computing and information technology.
Molecular Memory is a term for data storage technologies that use
molecular species as the data storage element, rather than e.g. circuits,
magnetics, inorganic materials or physical shapes. The molecular component
can be described as a molecular switch, and may perform this function by
any of several mechanisms, including charge storage, photochromism, or
changes in capacitance. In a perfect molecular memory device, each
individual molecule contains a bit of data, leading to massive data
capacity. However, practical devices are more likely to use large numbers
of molecules for each bit, in the manner of 3D optical data storage (many
examples of which can be considered molecular memory devices). The term
"molecular memory" is most often used to mean indicate very fast,
electronically addressed solid-state data storage, as is the term computer
memory. At present, molecular memories are still found only in
laboratories.
Molecular Memory can be used to Increase the Memory Capacity of Hard Disks.
Scientists have taken part in research where the first molecule capable of
remembering the direction of a magnetic above liquid nitrogen temperatures
has been prepared and characterized. The results may be used in the future
to massively increase the storage capacity of hard disks without
increasing their physical size.
Researchers develop 128Mb STT-MRAM with world's fastest write speed for
embedded memory. A research team has successfully developed 128Mb-density
STT-MRAM (spin-transfer torque magnetoresistive random access memory) with
a write speed of 14 ns for use in embedded memory applications, such as
cache in IOT and AI. This is currently the world's fastest write speed for
embedded memory application with a density over 100Mb and will pave the
way for the mass-production of large capacity STT-MRAM. STT-MRAM is
capable of high-speed operation and consumes very little power as it
retains data even when the power is off. Because of these features,
STT-MRAM is gaining traction as the next-generation technology for
applications such as embedded memory, main memory and logic. Three large
semiconductor fabrication plants have announced that risk mass-production
will begin in 2018. As memory is a vital component of computer systems,
handheld devices and storage, its performance and reliability are of great
importance for green energy solutions. The current capacity of STT-MRAM is
ranged between 8Mb-40Mb. But to make STT-MRAM more practical, it is
necessary to increase the memory density. The team at the Center for
Innovative Integrated Electronic Systems (CIES) has increased the memory
density of STT-MRAM by intensively developing STT-MRAMs in which magnetic
tunnel junctions (MTJs) are integrated with CMOS. This will significantly
reduce the power-consumption of embedded memory such as cache and eFlash
memory. MTJs were miniaturized through a series of process developments.
To reduce the memory size needed for higher-density STT-MRAM, the MTJs
were formed directly on via holes -- small openings that allow a
conductive connection between the different layers of a semiconductor
device. By using the reduced size memory cell, the research group has
designed 128Mb-density STT-MRAM and fabricated a chip. In the fabricated
chip, the researchers measured a write speed of subarray. As a result,
high-speed operation with 14ns was demonstrated at a low power supply
voltage of 1.2 V. To date, this is the fastest write speed operation in an
STT-MRAM chip with a density over 100Mb in the world.
Motherboard - Main Circuit Board
Motherboard is the main printed circuit board or PCB found in
general purpose microcomputers and other expandable systems. It holds and
allows communication between many of the crucial electronic components of
a system, such as the
central processing unit
(CPU) and
memory, and
provides connectors for other peripherals. Unlike a backplane, a
motherboard usually contains significant sub-systems such as the central
processor, the chipset's input/output and memory controllers, interface
connectors, and other components integrated for general purpose use.
Motherboard specifically refers to a PCB with expansion capability and as
the name suggests, this board is often referred to as the "
mother"
of all components attached to it, which often include peripherals,
interface cards, and daughtercards: sound cards, video cards, network
cards, hard drives, or other forms of persistent storage; TV tuner cards,
cards providing extra USB or FireWire slots and a variety of other custom
components. Similarly, the term mainboard is applied to devices with a
single board and no additional expansions or capability, such as
controlling boards in laser printers, televisions, washing machines and
other embedded systems with limited expansion abilities.
Mother Board (image)
Circuit Board Components -
Design (Circuit
Boards)
Integrated Circuit -
I.C.
Printed Circuit Board mechanically supports and electrically
connects electronic components or electrical components using conductive
tracks, pads and other features etched from one or more sheet layers of
copper laminated onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-conductive
substrate. Components are generally soldered onto the PCB to both
electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to it. Printed circuit
boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They are also
used in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.
Processor
Processor is the part of a
computer or microprocessor chip that does most of the data
processing, which is the
procedure that
interprets the
input based on
programmed instructions so that the
information can be prepared
for a particular purpose or output.
Algorithms
-
Computer Programs -
Information Processing
Microprocessor accepts digital or
binary data as
input,
processes
it according to instructions stored in its
memory, and provides results as output.
Transistors.
Central Processing Unit carries out the
instructions of a
computer
program by performing the basic
arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/O) operations
specified by the instructions.
Uses voltage control as a language.
The Central
Processing Unit is also know as the
CPU for short. The central processing unit
includes registers, an arithmetic logic unit , and control circuits, which
interpret and execute assembly language instructions. The CPU interacts
with all the other parts of the computer architecture to make sense of the
data and deliver the necessary output. The CPU is the most important
processor in a given
computer. Its electronic circuitry executes instructions of a computer
program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O)
operations. This role contrasts with that of external components, such as
main
memory and I/O circuitry, and specialized
coprocessors such as graphics processing units or GPUs for short.
Coprocessor is a computer processor used to supplement the
functions of the primary processor or the CPU.
Multi-Core Processor can run multiple instructions at the
same time, increasing overall
speed for programs.
Multiprocessing
is a computer system having two or more processing units (multiple
processors) each sharing main
memory and
peripherals, in order to
simultaneously process programs. It is the use of two or more central
processing units (CPUs) within a single computer system. The term also
refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor or
the ability to allocate tasks between them. There are many variations on
this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with
context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined. (multiple cores on
one
die, multiple dies in one package, multiple packages in one system
unit, etc.).
Brain Processing.
Context Switch in computing is the process of storing the state of a
process or of a thread, so that it can be restored and execution resumed
from the same point later. This allows multiple processes to share a
single CPU, and is an essential feature of a
multitasking operating
system.
Graphics Processing Unit is a specialized electronic circuit designed
to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of
images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display device.
GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile
phones, personal computers, workstations, and
game consoles. Modern GPUs
are very efficient at manipulating computer graphics and image processing,
and their highly parallel structure makes them more efficient than
general-purpose CPUs for algorithms where the processing of large blocks
of data is done in parallel. In a personal computer, a GPU can be present
on a video card, or it can be embedded on the motherboard or—in certain
CPUs—on the CPU die.
NVIDIA TITAN V is the most powerful graphics card ever created for the PC.
Processor Design is the design engineering task of creating a
microprocessor, a component of computer hardware. It is a subfield of
electronics engineering and computer engineering. The design process
involves choosing an instruction set and a certain execution paradigm
(e.g. VLIW or RISC) and results in a microarchitecture described in e.g.
VHDL or Verilog. This description is then manufactured employing some of
the various semiconductor device fabrication processes. This results in a
die which is bonded onto a chip carrier. This chip carrier is then
soldered onto, or inserted into a socket on, a printed circuit board
(PCB).The mode of operation of any microprocessor is the execution of
lists of instructions. Instructions typically include those to compute or
manipulate data values using registers, change or retrieve values in
read/write memory, perform relational tests between data values and to
control program flow.
Multitasking -
Batch Process -
Process -
Processing -
Speed
Information Processor is a system (be it electrical,
mechanical or biological) which takes information (a sequence of
enumerated symbols or states) in one form and processes
(transforms) it into another form, e.g. to statistics, by an
algorithmic process. An information processing system is made up
of four basic parts, or sub-systems: input, processor, storage,
output.
Processor Affinity enables the binding and unbinding
of a process or a thread to a central processing unit.
Clock Signal
is a particular type of
signal that
oscillates
between a high and a low state and is used like a metronome to coordinate
actions of digital circuits. A clock signal is produced by a clock
generator. Although more complex arrangements are used, the most
common clock signal is in the form of a square wave with a 50% duty cycle,
usually with a fixed, constant
frequency. Circuits
using the clock signal for
synchronization
may become active at either the rising edge, falling edge, or, in the case
of double data rate, both in the rising and in the falling edges of the
clock cycle.
Clock Generator is a circuit that produces a
timing signal (known as a
clock signal and behaves as such) for use in
synchronizing a circuit's operation.
The signal can range from a simple symmetrical square wave to more complex
arrangements. The basic parts that all clock generators share are a
resonant
circuit and
an amplifier. The resonant circuit is usually a quartz piezo-electric
oscillator, although simpler tank circuits and even RC circuits may be
used. The amplifier circuit usually inverts the signal from the
oscillator and
feeds a portion back into the oscillator to maintain oscillation. The
generator may have additional sections to modify the basic signal. The
8088 for example, used a 2/3 duty cycle clock, which required the clock
generator to incorporate logic to convert the 50/50 duty cycle which is
typical of raw oscillators. Other such optional sections include frequency
divider or clock multiplier sections. Programmable clock generators allow
the number used in the divider or multiplier to be changed, allowing any
of a wide variety of output frequencies to be selected without modifying
the hardware. The clock generator in a motherboard is often changed by
computer enthusiasts to control the speed of their CPU, FSB, GPU and RAM.
Typically the programmable clock generator is set by the
BIOS at
boot time to the selected value; although some systems have dynamic
frequency scaling, which frequently re-programs the clock generator.
Crystal Oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that
uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric
material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency.
Clock Speed typically refers to the
frequency at which a
chip like a central processing unit (CPU), one core of a multi-core
processor, is running and is used as an indicator of the processor's
speed. It is measured in clock cycles per second or its equivalent, the SI
unit hertz (Hz). The clock rate of the first generation of computers was
measured in hertz or kilohertz (kHz), but in the 21st century the speed of
modern CPUs is commonly advertised in gigahertz (GHz). This metric is most
useful when comparing processors within the same family, holding constant
other features that may impact performance. Video card and CPU
manufacturers commonly select their highest performing units from a
manufacturing batch and set their maximum clock rate higher, fetching a
higher price.
Counter in digital electronics is a device which stores (and sometimes
displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred,
often in relationship to a clock signal. The most common type is a
sequential digital logic circuit with an input line called the "
clock" and
multiple output lines. The values on the output lines represent a number
in the binary or BCD number system. Each pulse applied to the clock input
increments or decrements the number in the counter. A counter circuit
is usually constructed of a number of flip-flops connected in cascade.
Counters are a very widely used component in digital circuits, and are
manufactured as separate integrated circuits and also incorporated as
parts of larger
integrated circuits. (7 Bit Counter).
555 timer IC is an
integrated circuit (chip) used in a
variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555
can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop
element. Derivatives provide two or four timing circuits in one package.
Semiconductor
Design standard cell methodology is a method of designing
application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) with mostly digital-logic
features.
BIOS
Silicon
Photonics is the study and application of photonic systems
which use silicon as an optical medium.
Transistor
is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or
current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the
current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but
many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
CPU -
Binary Code -
Memistors
Transistors, How do
they work? (youtube)
Making your own 4
Bit Computer from Transistors (youtube)
See How Computers
Add Numbers In One Lesson (youtube)
Carbon Nanotube Field-effect Transistor refers to a
field-effect transistor that utilizes a single
carbon nanotube or an array
of carbon nanotubes as the channel material instead of bulk silicon in the
traditional MOSFET structure. First demonstrated in 1998, there have been
major developments in CNTFETs since.
E-Waste.
Analog Chip is a set of miniature electronic analog circuits
formed on a single piece of semiconductor material.
Analog Signal is any continuous
signal for which the time
varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other
time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. For
example, in an
analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the
signal varies continuously with the pressure of the
sound waves. It
differs from a digital signal, in which the continuous quantity is a
representation of a sequence of discrete values which can only take on one
of a finite number of values. The term analog signal usually refers to
electrical signals; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, human
speech, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals.
An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's
information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the
signal to convey
pressure information. In an electrical signal, the
voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent
the information.
Digital Signal is a
signal that is constructed from a
discrete set of
waveforms of a physical quantity so as to represent a
sequence of discrete values. A logic signal is a digital signal with only
two possible values, and describes an arbitrary bit stream. Other types of
digital signals can represent three-valued logic or higher valued logics.
Conversion.
Spintronics and Nanophotonics combined in 2-D material is a way to
convert the spin information into a predictable light signal at room
temperature. The discovery brings the worlds of spintronics and
nanophotonics closer together and might lead to the development of an
energy-efficient way of processing data.
Math Works -
Nimbula -
Learning Tools -
Digikey Electronic Components -
Nand 2
Tetris
Interfaces -
Brain -
Robots -
3D Printing -
Operating Systems -
Code -
Programing -
Computer Courses
-
Online
Dictionary of Computer -
Technology Terms
-
CS Unplugged
- Computer Science without using computers.
Computer Standards List (wiki) -
IPv6 recent
version of the Internet Protocol.
IPv6 -
Web 2.0 (wiki)
Trouble-Shoot PC's -
Fixing PC's
-
PC Maintenance Tips
Variable
(cs) -
Technology Education -
Engineering
-
Technology Addiction
-
Technical Competitions -
Internet.
Digital Displays
Digital Signage is a sub segment of signage. Digital
signages use technologies such as LCD,
LED and Projection to display
content such as digital images, video, streaming media, and information.
They can be found in public spaces, transportation systems, museums,
stadiums, retail stores, hotels, restaurants, and corporate buildings
etc., to provide wayfinding, exhibitions, marketing and outdoor
advertising. Digital Signage market is expected to grow from USD $15
billion to over USD $24bn by 2020.
Interface.
Display Device is an
output device for presentation of
information in visual or
tactile form (the latter used for example in tactile electronic
displays for blind people). When the
input information that is supplied
has an electrical signal, the display is called an electronic display.
Common applications for electronic visual displays are
televisions or
computer monitors.
Colors -
Eyes
(sight) -
Eye Strain
-
Frame Rate
LED Display is a
flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes as pixels
for a video display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors in
store signs and billboards, and in recent years they have also become
commonly used in destination signs on public transport vehicles. LED
displays are capable of providing general illumination in addition to
visual display, as when used for stage lighting or other decorative (as
opposed to informational) purposes.
Organic
Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) is a
Light-Emitting
Diode (LED) in which
the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that
emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic
semiconductor is situated between two electrodes; typically, at least one
of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital
displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors,
portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. A
major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in
solid-state lighting applications.
AMOLED is a display
technology used in smartwatches, mobile devices, laptops, and televisions.
OLED describes a specific type of thin-film-display technology in which
organic compounds form the electroluminescent material, and active matrix
refers to the technology behind the addressing of pixels.
High-Dynamic-Range Imaging is a high dynamic range (HDR) technique
used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of
luminosity than is possible with standard digital imaging or photographic
techniques. The aim is to present a similar range of luminance to that
experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through
adaptation of the iris and other methods, adjusts constantly to adapt to a
broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain
continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a
wide range of light conditions.
Graphics Display Resolution is the width and height dimensions of an
electronic visual display device, such as a computer monitor, in pixels.
Certain combinations of width and height are standardized and typically
given a name and an initialism that is descriptive of its dimensions. A
higher display resolution in a display of the same size means that
displayed content appears sharper.
Display Resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension
that can be displayed.
Ratio.
4K Resolution
refers to a horizontal resolution on the order of 4,000 pixels and
vertical resolution on the order of 2,000 pixels.
Smartphones -
Tech Addiction
Computer Monitor
is an electronic visual display for computers. A monitor usually comprises
the display device, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display
device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid
crystal display (TFT-LCD) or a flat panel LED display, while older
monitors used a cathode ray tubes (CRT). It can be connected to the
computer via VGA, DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, LVDS (Low-voltage
differential signaling) or other proprietary connectors and signals.
Durable Monitor Screens
(computers)
Liquid-Crystal Display is a flat-panel display or other electronically
modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of
liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using
a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. LCDs
are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose
computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which can
be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7-segment
displays, as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology,
except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small
pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a wide
range of applications including computer monitors,
televisions, instrument panels,
aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD
screens are common in portable consumer devices such as digital cameras,
watches, calculators, and
mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD
screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD
players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy,
bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD
screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma
displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital
watches to huge, big-screen television sets. Since LCD screens do not use
phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when a static image is
displayed on a screen for a long time (e.g., the table frame for an
aircraft schedule on an indoor sign). LCDs are, however, susceptible to
image persistence. The LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be
disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment
more efficiently than CRTs can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions
with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became
obsolete for most purposes.
Pixel is a physical
point in a
raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an all
points addressable display device; so it is the smallest controllable
element of a picture represented on the screen. Each pixel is a sample of
an original image; more samples typically provide more accurate
representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable.
In
color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or
four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta,
yellow, and black. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single
component of a digital image. However, the definition is highly
context-sensitive. For example, there can be "printed pixels" in a page,
or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values,
or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera (photosensor
elements). This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms
include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, and spot. Pixels can be used as a
unit of measure such as:
2400 pixels per inch, 640 pixels per line, or
spaced 10 pixels apart. The measures
dots per inch (dpi) and pixels per
inch (ppi) are sometimes used interchangeably, but have distinct meanings,
especially for printer devices, where dpi is a measure of the printer's
density of dot (e.g. ink droplet) placement. For example, a high-quality
photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200
dpi inkjet
printer. Even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer
manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable
resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the
result can resemble the original. The number of pixels in an image is
sometimes called the
resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition. Pixel
counts can be expressed as a single number, as in a "three-megapixel"
digital camera, which has a nominal three million pixels, or as a pair of
numbers, as in a "640 by 480 display", which has 640 pixels from side to
side and 480 from top to bottom (as in a VGA display), and therefore has a
total number of 640×480 = 307,200 pixels or 0.3 megapixels. The pixels, or
color samples, that form a digitized image (such as a JPEG file used on a
web page) may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen
pixels, depending on how a computer displays an image. In computing, an
image composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image.
The word raster originates from television scanning patterns, and has been
widely used to describe similar halftone printing and storage techniques.
Anti-Aliasing is the smoothing the jagged
appearance of diagonal lines in a bitmapped image. The pixels that
surround the edges of the line are changed to varying shades of gray or
color in order to blend the sharp edge into the background.
Matrix.
A new look at color displays. Tunable structural color images by
UV-patterned conducting polymer nanofilms on metal surfaces. Researchers
have developed a method that may lead to new types of displays based on
structural colors. The discovery opens the way to cheap and
energy-efficient color displays and electronic labels.
Touchscreen is a
input and output device normally layered on the top
of an electronic
visual display of an information processing system. A
user can give input or control the information processing system through
simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special
stylus and/or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or
specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special
stylus/pen. The user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed
and to control how it is displayed; for example, zooming to increase the
text size. The touchscreen enables the user to
interact directly with what
is displayed, rather than using a mouse, touchpad, or any other such
device (other than a stylus, which is optional for most modern
touchscreens).
Touchscreens are common in devices such as game consoles,
personal computers, tablet computers, electronic voting machines, point of
sale systems ,and smartphones. They can also be attached to computers or,
as terminals, to networks. They also play a prominent role in the design
of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some
e-readers.
Touchscreen Features recognizes
multi touch gestures like swipes, pinch, flicks, tap, double tap and drag.
Accepts touch inputs by gloved fingers, finger nails, pens, keys, credit
cards, styluses, erasers, etc. Touch events can be recorded even if the
user's finger does not touch the screen.
Making plastic more transparent while also adding electrical conductivity.
In an effort to improve large touchscreens, LED light panels and
window-mounted infrared solar cells, researchers have made plastic
conductive while also making it more transparent.
Interfaces
Stylus in computing is a
small pen-shaped
instrument that is used to input commands to a computer screen,
mobile device or graphics tablet. With touchscreen devices, a user places
a stylus on the surface of the screen to draw or make selections by
tapping the stylus on the screen. In this manner, the stylus can be used
instead of a
mouse or
trackpad as a pointing device, a technique commonly called pen computing.
Pen-like input devices which are larger than a stylus, and offer increased
functionality such as programmable buttons, pressure sensitivity and
electronic erasers, are often known as digital pens.
7-Segment Display -
9-Segment Display -
14-Segment Display
LCD that
is paper-thin, flexible, light, tough and cheap perhaps only costing
$5 for a 5-inch screen. flexible paper like display that could be updated
as fast as the news cycles. Less than half a millimeter thick, the new
flexi-LCD design could revolutionize printed media.
A front polarizer-free optically rewritable (ORW) liquid crystal display (LCD).
Software - Digital Information
Software is that part of a computer
system that consists of
encoded
information or computer
instructions, in contrast to the physical
hardware from which the system is built.
Software are
written programs that
are stored in read/write memory, which includes
procedures or rules and
associated documentation pertaining to the
operation of a computer system. Software is a
specialized tool for performing
advanced calculations that allow the
user to be more
productive and
work incredibly fast and efficient. Software is a
time saver.
Operating System -
Code -
Language -
Analog -
Word
Processing -
Apps -
Testing -
AI -
Algorithms
Software Engineering is the application of
engineering to the
development of software in a systematic method. Typical formal definitions
of Software Engineering are: Research, design,
develop, and test operating
systems-level software, compilers, and network distribution software for
medical, industrial, military,
communications, aerospace, business,
scientific, and general computing applications. The systematic application
of scientific and technological knowledge, methods, and experience to the
design, implementation, testing, and documentation of software"; The
application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the
development, operation, and maintenance of software; An engineering
discipline that is concerned with all aspects of software production; And
the establishment and use of sound engineering principles in order to
economically obtain software that is
reliable and works efficiently on
real machines.
Software Architecture
refers to the high level structures of a software system, the discipline
of creating such
structures, and the documentation of these structures.
These structures are needed to reason about the software system. Each
structure comprises software elements, relations among them, and
properties of both elements and relations. The architecture of a software
system is a metaphor, analogous to the
architecture of a building.
Software Framework is an abstraction in which software providing
generic functionality can be selectively changed by additional
user-written code, thus providing application-specific software. A
software framework provides a standard way to build and deploy
applications. A software framework is a universal, reusable software
environment that provides particular functionality as part of a larger
software platform to facilitate development of software applications,
products and solutions. Software frameworks may include support programs,
compilers, code libraries, tool sets, and
Application Programming
Interfaces (
APIs) that bring together all the different components to
enable development of a project or system. Frameworks have key
distinguishing features that separate them from normal libraries:
inversion of control: In a framework, unlike in libraries or in standard
user applications, the overall program's flow of control is not dictated
by the caller, but by the framework. Extensibility: A user can extend the
framework - usually by selective overriding; or programmers can add
specialized user code to provide specific functionality. Non-modifiable
framework code: The framework code, in general, is not supposed to be
modified, while accepting user-implemented extensions. In other words,
users can extend the framework, but should not modify its code.
Cross-Platform Software is computer software that is designed to work
in several computing platforms. Some cross-platform software requires a
separate build for each platform, but some can be directly run on any
platform without special preparation, being written in an interpreted
language or compiled to portable bytecode for which the interpreters or
run-time packages are common or standard components of all supported
platforms. Cross-platform software is also called multi-platform software,
platform-agnostic software, or platform-independent software.
Inter-Disciplinarity.
Abstraction is a technique for hiding complexity of computer systems.
It works by establishing a level of simplicity on which a person interacts
with the system, suppressing the more complex details below the current
level. The programmer works with an idealized interface (usually well
defined) and can add additional levels of functionality that would
otherwise be too complex to handle.
Software Development is the process of computer programming,
documenting, testing, and bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining
applications and frameworks resulting in a software product. Software
development is a process of writing and maintaining the source code, but
in a broader sense, it includes all that is involved between the
conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of
the software, sometimes in a planned and structured process. Therefore,
software development may include research, new development, prototyping,
modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities
that result in software products.
Don't Repeat Yourself is a principle of
software
development aimed at reducing repetition of software patterns,
replacing it with abstractions or using data normalization to avoid
redundancy.
Worse is Better is when software that is limited, but simple to use,
may be more appealing to the user and market than the reverse. The idea
that quality does not necessarily increase with
functionality—that there is a point where
less functionality ("worse") is a preferable option ("better") in terms of practicality and usability.
Unix Philosophy is bringing the concepts of modularity and
reusability into software engineering practice.
Reusability -
Smart Innovation
-
Compatibility -
Simplicity
Software Versioning is when some schemes use a zero in the first
sequence to designate alpha or beta status for releases that are not
stable enough for general or practical deployment and are intended for
testing or internal use only. It can be used in the third position: 0 for
alpha (status) - 1 for beta (status) - 2 for release candidate - 3 for
(final) release. Version 1.0 is used as a major milestone, indicating that
the software is "complete", that it has all major features, and is
considered reliable enough for general release. A good example of this is
the Linux kernel, which was first released as version 0.01 in 1991, and
took until 1994 to reach version 1.0.0.
Me 2.0
Software Developer is a person concerned with facets of the
software development process, including the research, design, programming,
and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are often used
with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst, and software
engineer. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system
design, software development, and programming are more apparent. Already
in the current market place there can be found a segregation between
programmers and developers, being that one who
implements is not the same as the one who designs the class structure or
hierarchy. Even more so that developers become systems architects, those
who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a
large software system. (see also Debate over who is a software engineer).
Software Development Process is splitting of software
development work into distinct phases (or stages) containing activities
with the intent of better planning and management. It is often considered
a subset of the systems development life cycle. The methodology may
include the pre-definition of specific deliverables and artifacts that are
created and completed by a project team to develop or maintain an
application. Common methodologies include waterfall, prototyping,
iterative and incremental development, spiral development, rapid
application development, extreme programming and various types of agile
methodology. Some people consider a life-cycle "model" a more general term
for a category of methodologies and a software development "process" a
more specific term to refer to a specific process chosen by a specific
organization. For example, there are many specific software development
processes that fit the spiral life-cycle model.
Project Management.
Scrum in software Development is a framework for managing software
development. It is designed for teams of three to nine developers who
break their work into actions that can be completed within fixed duration
cycles (called "sprints"), track progress and re-plan in daily 15-minute
stand-up meetings, and collaborate to deliver workable software every
sprint. Approaches to coordinating the work of multiple scrum teams in
larger organizations include Large-Scale Scrum, Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe)
and Scrum of Scrums, among others.
Scrum is an iterative and incremental agile software
development framework for managing product development. It defines "a
flexible, holistic product development strategy where a development team
works as a unit to reach a common goal", challenges assumptions of the
"traditional, sequential approach" to product development, and enables
teams to self-organize by encouraging physical co-location or close online
collaboration of all team members, as well as daily face-to-face
communication among all team members and disciplines involved. A key
principle of Scrum is its recognition that during product development, the
customers can change their minds about what they want and need (often
called requirements volatility), and that unpredicted challenges cannot be
easily addressed in a traditional predictive or planned manner. As such,
Scrum adopts an evidence-based empirical approach—accepting that the
problem cannot be fully understood or defined, focusing instead on
maximizing the team's ability to deliver quickly, to respond to emerging
requirements and to adapt to evolving technologies and changes in market
conditions.
Software Design is the process by which an agent creates a
specification of a software artifact, intended to accomplish goals, using
a set of primitive components and subject to constraints. Software design
may refer to either "all the activity involved in conceptualizing,
framing, implementing, commissioning, and ultimately modifying complex
systems" or "the activity following requirements specification and before
programming, as ... [in] a stylized software engineering process."
Software design usually involves problem solving and planning a software
solution. This includes both a low-level component and algorithm design
and a high-level, architecture design.
Software Design Pattern.
Agile
Software Development describes a set of principles for
software development under which requirements and solutions evolve through
the collaborative effort of self-organizing cross-functional teams. It
advocates adaptive planning, evolutionary development, early delivery, and
continuous improvement, and it encourages rapid and flexible response to
change. These principles support the definition and continuing evolution
of many software development methods.
Software Release Life Cycle is the sum of the stages of development
and maturity for a piece of computer software: ranging from its initial
development to its eventual release, and including updated versions of the
released version to help improve software or fix bugs still present in the
software.
Development Process
-
Develop Meaning
Software as a Service is a software licensing and delivery
model in which software is licensed on a subscription basis and is
centrally
hosted.
Computer Program is a collection of
instructions that performs a
specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to
function, and typically executes the program's instructions in a central
processing unit.
Computer Code
-
Free Software
Instruction Set is the interface between a computer's
software and its hardware, and thereby enables the independent development
of these two computing realms; it defines the valid instructions that a
machine may execute.
Computing Platform means in general sense, where any piece
of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the operating system
(OS), even a web browser or other application, as long as the code is
executed in it. The term computing platform can refer to different
abstraction levels, including a certain hardware architecture, an
operating system (OS), and runtime libraries. In total it can be said to
be the stage on which computer programs can run. A platform can be seen
both as a constraint on the application development process, in that
different platforms provide different functionality and restrictions; and
as an assistance to the development process, in that they provide
low-level functionality ready-made. For example, an OS may be a platform
that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware and provides a
generic command for saving files or accessing the network.
Mobile Application Development
is a term used to denote the act or process by which application software
is developed for mobile devices, such as personal digital assistants,
enterprise digital assistants or mobile phones. These applications can be
pre-installed on phones during manufacturing platforms, or delivered as
web applications using server-side or client-side processing (e.g.,
JavaScript) to provide an "application-like" experience within a Web
browser. Application software developers also must consider a long array
of screen sizes, hardware specifications, and configurations because of
intense competition in mobile software and changes within each of the
platforms. Mobile app development has been steadily growing, in revenues
and jobs created. A 2013 analyst report estimates there are 529,000 direct
app economy jobs within the EU 28 members, 60% of which are mobile app developers.
APPS (application software)
Application Performance Management is the monitoring and management of
the
performance and availability of software
applications. APM strives to detect and diagnose complex application
performance problems to maintain an expected level of service.
Command Pattern is a behavioral design pattern in which an
object is used to encapsulate all information needed to perform an action
or trigger an event at a later time. This information includes the method
name, the object that owns the method and values for the method
parameters.
Iterative and incremental Development is any combination of
both iterative design or iterative method and incremental build model for
software development. The combination is of long standing and has been
widely suggested for large development efforts. For example, the 1985
DOD-STD-2167 mentions (in section 4.1.2): "During software development,
more than one iteration of the software development cycle may be in
progress at the same time." and "This process may be described as an
'evolutionary acquisition' or 'incremental build' approach." The
relationship between iterations and increments is determined by the
overall software development methodology and software development process.
The exact number and nature of the particular incremental builds and what
is iterated will be specific to each individual development effort.
OSI Model is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or
computing system without regard to their underlying internal structure and
technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication
systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication
system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined
seven layers. A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer
below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications
across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while
it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise
the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized
as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
Technology Stack is a set of software subsystems or
components needed to create a complete platform such that no additional
software is needed to support applications. Applications are said to "run
on" or "run on top of" the resulting platform. Some definitions of a
platform overlap with what is known as system software.
Abstraction Layer is a way of hiding the implementation
details of a particular set of functionality, allowing the separation of
concerns to facilitate interoperability and platform independence.
Software models that use layers of abstraction include the OSI 7-layer
model for computer network protocols, the OpenGL graphics drawing library,
and the byte stream input/output (I/O) model originated from Unix and
adopted by DOS, Linux, and most other modern operating systems.
Open Systems Interconnection is an effort to standardize
computer networking that was started in 1977 by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), along with the ITU-T.
Enterprise
Social Software
comprises social software as used in "enterprise" (business/commercial)
contexts. It includes social and networked modifications to corporate
intranets and other classic software platforms used by large companies to
organize their communication. In contrast to traditional enterprise
software, which imposes structure prior to use, enterprise social software
tends to encourage use prior to providing structure.
Enterprise Architecture Framework defines how to create and
use an enterprise architecture. An architecture framework provides
principles and practices for creating and using the architecture
description of a system. It structures architects' thinking by dividing
the architecture description into domains, layers or views, and offers
models - typically matrices and diagrams - for documenting each view. This
allows for making systemic design decisions on all the components of the
system and making long-term decisions around new design, requirements,
sustainability and support.
Enterprise Architecture is "a well-defined practice for
conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation,
using a holistic approach at all times, for the successful development and
execution of strategy. Enterprise architecture applies architecture
principles and practices to guide organizations through the business,
information, process, and technology changes necessary to execute their
strategies. These practices utilize the various aspects of an enterprise
to identify, motivate, and achieve these changes.
International Organization for Standardization is an
international standard-setting body composed of representatives from
various national standards organizations.
Conceptual Model is a representation of a system, made of
the composition of concepts which are used to help people know,
understand, or simulate a subject the model represents. Some models are
physical objects; for example, a toy model which may be assembled, and may
be made to work like the object it represents.
Model-Driven Engineering is a software development
methodology that focuses on creating and exploiting domain models, which
are conceptual models of all the topics related to a specific problem.
Hence, it highlights and aims at abstract representations of the knowledge
and activities that govern a particular application domain, rather than
the computing (f.e. algorithmic) concepts.
Model-Based Design is a mathematical and visual method of
addressing problems associated with designing complex control,signal
processing and communication systems. It is used in many motion control,
industrial equipment, aerospace, and automotive applications. Model-based
design is a methodology applied in designing embedded software.
Architectural Pattern
is a general, reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem in
software architecture within a given context. Architectural patterns are
similar to software design pattern but have a broader scope. The
architectural patterns address various issues in software engineering,
such as computer hardware performance limitations, high availability and
minimization of a business risk. Some architectural patterns have been
implemented within software frameworks.
Software Design Pattern is a general reusable solution to a commonly
occurring problem within a given context in software design. It is not a
finished design that can be transformed directly into source or
machine code. It is a description or
template for how to solve a problem that can be used in many different
situations. Design patterns are formalized best practices that the
programmer can use to solve common problems when designing an
application
or system.
Object-oriented design patterns typically show relationships
and interactions between classes or objects, without specifying the final
application classes or objects that are involved. Patterns that imply
mutable state may be unsuited for functional
programming languages, some
patterns can be rendered unnecessary in languages that have built-in
support for solving the problem they are trying to solve, and
object-oriented patterns are not necessarily suitable for
on-object-oriented languages. Design patterns may be viewed as a
structured approach to computer programming intermediate between the
levels of a programming paradigm and a concrete
algorithm.
Resource-Oriented Architecture
is a style of software architecture and programming paradigm for designing
and developing software in the form of resources with "RESTful"
interfaces. These resources are software components (discrete pieces of
code and/or data structures) which can be reused for different purposes.
ROA design principles and guidelines are used during the phases of
software development and system integration.
Representational State Transfer or
RESTful Web services are one way of providing interoperability between
computer systems on the Internet. REST-compliant Web services allow
requesting systems to access and manipulate textual representations of Web
resources using a uniform and predefined set of stateless operations.
Other forms of Web service exist, which expose their own arbitrary sets of
operations such as WSDL and SOAP. (REST)
Software Configuration Management is the task of
tracking and controlling changes in the software, part of the larger
cross-disciplinary field of configuration management. SCM practices
include revision control and the establishment of baselines. If something
goes wrong, SCM can determine what was changed and who changed it. If a
configuration is working well, SCM can determine how to replicate it
across many hosts.
Cucumber is a software tool that computer programmers use
for testing other software.
Selenium Software (wiki)
Communications Protocol
-
Data -
Structure -
Interfaces -
Matrix -
Learn to Code
-
Free
Software.
Apache Maven -
Jwebunit software is a Java-based testing framework for web
applications.
Apache JMeter is an Apache project that can be used as a
load testing tool for analyzing and measuring the performance of
a variety of services, with a focus on web applications.
Extreme Programming is a
software development methodology which is intended to improve software
quality and responsiveness to changing customer requirements. As a type of
agile software development, it advocates frequent "releases" in short
development cycles, which is intended to improve productivity and
introduce checkpoints at which new customer requirements can be adopted.
Other elements of extreme programming include: programming in pairs or
doing extensive code review, unit testing of all code, not programming
features until they are actually needed, a flat management structure, code
simplicity and clarity, expecting changes in the customer's requirements
as time passes and the problem is better understood, and frequent
communication with the customer and among programmers. The methodology
takes its name from the idea that the beneficial elements of traditional
software engineering practices are taken to "extreme" levels. As an
example, code reviews are considered a beneficial practice; taken to the
extreme, code can be reviewed continuously, i.e. the practice of pair
programming.
Software Testing
Software Testing is an
investigation conducted to provide information about the quality of
the product or service under
test. Software
testing can also provide an
objective, independent
view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand
the risks of
software implementation. Test techniques include the process
of executing a program or application with the intent of finding software
bugs (
errors or other
defects), and verifying that the software
product is fit for use.
Software testing involves the execution of a software component or system
component to evaluate one or more properties of interest. In general,
these properties indicate the extent to which the component or system
under test:
Meets the requirements that guided its design and development,
responds correctly to all kinds of inputs, performs its functions within
an acceptable time, is sufficiently usable, can be installed and run in
its intended environments, and achieves the general result its
stakeholders desire.
Software Bug is
an
error, flaw or
fault in the design,
development, or operation of computer
software
that causes it to produce an incorrect or unexpected result, or to behave
in unintended ways. The process of finding and correcting bugs is termed "
debugging"
and often uses formal techniques or tools to pinpoint bugs. Since the
1950s, some computer systems have been designed to detect or auto-correct
various software errors during operations. Bug is an error detected in the
development environment during testing stage.
Defect is a
mismatch between the expected and actual result of software development
detected by a software developer or end customer in the production
environment.
Failure is
called an error which is founded by the end user.
Smoke Testing is preliminary testing to reveal simple failures severe
enough to, for example, reject a prospective software release. Smoke tests
are a subset of test cases that cover the most important functionality of
a component or system, used to aid assessment of whether main functions of
the software appear to work correctly. When used to determine if a
computer program should be subjected to further, more fine-grained
testing, a smoke test may be called an intake test. Alternatively, it is a
set of tests run on each new build of a product to verify that the build
is testable before the build is released into the hands of the test team.
In the DevOps paradigm, use of a BVT step is one hallmark of the
continuous integration maturity stage.
White-Box Testing is a method of testing software that
tests internal
structures or workings of an application, as opposed to its functionality
(i.e. black-box testing).
Psychology -
Assessments.
Black-Box Testing is a method of software testing that
examines the functionality
of an application
without peering into its internal structures or
workings. This method of test can be applied virtually to every level of
software testing: unit, integration, system and acceptance. It is
sometimes referred to as specification-based testing. It is sometimes
referred to as specification-based testing. Typical black-box test design
techniques include: Decision table testing.
All-pairs testing.
Equivalence partitioning.
Boundary
value analysis.
Cause–effect graph. Error guessing.
State transition testing.
Use case
testing.
User story testing.
Domain analysis. Syntax testing. Combining technique.
Gray Box Testing is a combination of white-box testing and black-box
testing. The aim of this testing is to search for the defects if any due
to improper structure or improper usage of applications.
Red Team imitates real-world attacks that
can hit a company or an organization, and they perform all the necessary
steps that attackers would use. By assuming the role of an attacker, they
show organizations what could be backdoors or exploitable vulnerabilities
that pose a threat to their cybersecurity.
Human in the
Loop.
A/B Testing is a term for a randomized
experiment with two
variants, A and B, which are the control and variation in the controlled
experiment. A/B
testing is a form of statistical hypothesis testing with
two variants leading to the technical term, two-sample
hypothesis testing,
used in the field of
statistics.
Regression Testing
is a type of software testing which verifies that software, which was
previously developed and tested, still performs correctly after it was
changed or interfaced with other software. Changes may include software
enhancements, patches, configuration changes, etc. During regression
testing, new software bugs or regressions may be uncovered. Sometimes a
software change impact analysis is performed to determine what areas could
be affected by the proposed changes. These areas may include functional
and non-functional areas of the system.
Observations.
Sandbox Test is a type of software testing environment that enables
the isolated execution of software or programs for independent evaluation,
monitoring or testing. In an implementation, a sandbox also may be known
as a test server, development server or working directory. It's a testing
environment that isolates untested code changes and outright
experimentation from the production environment or repository, in the
context of software development including Web development and revision
control.
Data-Driven Testing is a term used in the testing of
computer software to describe testing done using a table of conditions
directly as test inputs and verifiable outputs as well as the process
where test environment settings and control are not hard-coded. In the
simplest form the tester supplies the inputs from a row in the table and
expects the outputs which occur in the same row. The table typically
contains values which correspond to boundary or partition input spaces. In
the control methodology, test configuration is "read" from a database.
Diagnose.
Unit
Testing is a s
oftware development process in
which the smallest testable parts of an application, called units, are
individually scrutinized for proper operation. Software developers and
sometimes QA staff complete unit tests during the development process.
Unit testing is a software testing method by which individual units of
source code—sets of one or more computer program modules together with
associated control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures—are
tested to determine whether they are fit for use.
Error Guessing is a
test method in
which test cases used to find bugs in programs are established based on
experience in prior testing. The scope of test cases usually rely on the
software tester involved, who uses past experience and intuition to
determine what situations commonly cause software failure, or may cause
errors to appear. Typical errors include divide by zero, null pointers, or
invalid parameters. Error guessing has no explicit rules for testing; test
cases can be designed depending on the situation, either drawing from
functional documents or when an unexpected/undocumented error is found
while testing operations.
Spike in software development is a
product development method
originating from
Extreme Programming that uses the simplest possible
program to explore potential solutions. It is used to determine how much
work will be required to solve or work around a software issue. Typically,
a "
spike test" involves gathering
additional information or testing for easily reproduced edge cases. The
term is used in agile software development approaches like Scrum or
Extreme Programming. A spike in a sprint can be used in a number of ways:
As a way to familiarize the team with new hardware or software. To analyze
a problem thoroughly and assist in properly dividing work among separate
team members. Spikes tests can also be used to mitigate future risk, and
may uncover additional issues that have escaped notice. A distinction can
be made between technical spikes and functional spikes. The technical
spike is used more often for evaluating the impact new technology has on
the current implementation. A functional spike is used to determine the
interaction with a new feature or implementation. To track such work
items, in a ticketing system, a new user story can be set up for each
spike, for organization purposes. Following a spike, the results (a new
design, a refined workflow, etc.) are shared and discussed with the team.
Exploratory Testing is an approach to software testing that is
concisely described as simultaneous learning, test design and test
execution. Exploratory testing is a style of software testing that
emphasizes the personal freedom and responsibility of the individual
tester to continually optimize the quality of his/her work by treating
test-related learning, test design, test execution, and test result
interpretation as mutually supportive activities that run in parallel
throughout the project. While the software is being tested, the tester
learns things that together with experience and creativity generates new
good tests to run. Exploratory testing is often thought of as a black box
testing technique. Instead, those who have studied it consider it a test
approach that can be applied to any test technique, at any stage in the
development process. The key is not the test technique nor the item being
tested or reviewed; the key is the cognitive engagement of the tester, and
the tester's responsibility for managing his or her time.
Acceptance Testing is a test conducted to determine if the
requirements of a specification or contract are met.
Benchmark is the act of running a computer program, a set of
programs, or other operations, in order to
assess the relative performance
of an object, normally by running a number of
standard tests and trials
against it. The term 'benchmark' is also mostly utilized for the purposes
of elaborately designed benchmarking programs themselves.
Apps - Application Programs
Application Program or APP for short, is a
computer program
designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or
activities for the benefit of the user.
Software.
Application
Software is a computer program designed to perform a group
of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the
user. Examples of an application include a word processor, a spreadsheet,
an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an aeronautical
flight simulator, a console game or a photo editor. The collective noun
application software refers to all applications collectively. This
contrasts with
system software, which is mainly involved with running the
computer. Applications may be bundled with the computer and its system
software or published separately, and may be coded as proprietary,
open-source or university projects. Apps built for mobile platforms are
called mobile apps.
Authoring System is a program that has pre-programmed
elements for the development of interactive multimedia software titles.
Authoring systems can be defined as software that allows its user to
create multimedia applications for manipulating multimedia objects.
Application Performance Management is the monitoring and management of
performance and availability of software applications. APM strives to
detect and diagnose complex application performance problems to maintain
an expected level of service. APM is "the translation of IT metrics into
business meaning ([i.e.] value).
User Testing
from concept to launch, User
Testing provides actionable insights enabling
you to create great experiences.
Validately recruit
testers, launch tests, and analyze results.
Lookback designer &research.
Prototypes
(engineering)
Native Application is
a
software program that is
developed for use on a particular platform or device. Because a native app
is built for use on a particular device and its OS, it has the ability to
use device-specific hardware and software.
React Native App is a real mobile app. With React Native, you don't
build a "mobile web app", an "HTML5 app", or a "hybrid app". You build a
real mobile app that's indistinguishable from an app built using
Objective-C or Java. React Native uses the same fundamental UI building
blocks as regular iOS and Android apps.
Applications Interface
Create Mobile Apps Resources
Phone Gap
Como
Sweb AppsApp Breeder
My App Builder
I Build
App
Mobile Roadie
Yapp
App
Makr
Best App Makers
Build Your Own Business Apps
in 3 Minutes
Gigster building your app
Google
Developer Apps
Thing Space Verizon
App Management Interface
AppCenter: The Pay-What-You-Want App Store
Health Medical Apps
Apps from Amazon
Car
Finder App
Visual Travel Tours
Audio Travel
Gate Guru App
App Brain
Trip It
Field Tripper App
Test Flight App
App Shopper
Red Laser
Portable Apps
I-nigma Bar Code Reader
More Apps
M-Pesa
Language Translators
Wikitude
Yellow Pages App
Portable Apps
What's App
Apps for Plant LoversPress Pad App
for Digital Magazines and Publishers
Tech Fetch
Travel Tools
Cell Phones & Tools
Next Juggernaut
Rethink DB
Big in Japan
Near by Now
The Find
Milo
Apple
X Code
Quixey
Just in Mind
HyperCard is application software and a programming tool for
Apple Macintosh and Apple IIGS computers. It is among the first successful
hypermedia systems before the World Wide Web. It combines database
abilities with a graphical, flexible, user-modifiable interface. HyperCard
also features HyperTalk, a programming language for manipulating data and
the user interface.
Enable Cognitive Computing Features In Your App Using IBM Watson's
Language, Vision, Speech and Data APIs.
Operating Systems
Operating System is system
software that
manages computer
hardware and
software resources and provides common
services for computer programs. All
computer programs, excluding
Firmware, require an operating system to
function. Time-sharing operating systems
schedule tasks for efficient
use of the
system and may also include accounting software for cost
allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.
Interfaces (API).
Operating systems automatically
Format
Partitions with the appropriate
File System during the operating system
installation process.
Installable File System
-
File Format
-
Content Format
Timeline of Operating Systems
(wiki) -
History of Operating Systems
(wiki)
Types Of Operating Systems
System Software is computer
software designed
to provide a platform to other software. Examples of system software
include
operating systems, computational
science software, game engines, industrial automation, and software as a
service applications.
Control
Program for Microcomputers is a mass-market operating system created
for Intel 8080/85-based microcomputers by Gary Kildall of Digital
Research, Inc. Initially confined to single-tasking on 8-bit processors
and no more than 64 kilobytes of memory, later versions of CP/M added
multi-user variations and were migrated to 16-bit processors.
Unix is a
family of multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems that derive
from the original AT&T Unix, development starting in the 1970s at the Bell
Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others.
86-DOS
is a discontinued operating system developed and marketed by Seattle
Computer Products (SCP) for its Intel 8086-based computer kit. Initially
known as Q-DOS (
Quick and Dirty Operating System),
the name was changed to 86-DOS once SCP started licensing the operating
system in 1980.
Digital Research was a company created by
Gary
Kildall to market and develop his CP/M operating system and related
8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit systems like MP/M, Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS,
DOS Plus, DR DOS and GEM. It was the first large software company in the
microcomputer world. Digital Research was based in Pacific Grove,
California.
MS-DOS is an acronym
for Microsoft Disk Operating System is an operating system for x86-based
personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. Collectively, MS-DOS,
its rebranding as IBM PC DOS, and some operating systems attempting to be
compatible with MS-DOS, are sometimes referred to as "DOS" (which is also
the generic acronym for disk operating system). MS-DOS was the main
operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s
and the early 1990s, when it was gradually superseded by operating systems
offering a graphical user interface (GUI), in various generations of the
graphical Microsoft Windows operating system.
React OS is a Free
Community Open Source Collaborative Compatible Free Operating System.
Linux is
a family of free and open-source software operating systems built around
the Linux kernel. Typically, Linux is packaged in a form known as a Linux
distribution (or distro for short) for both desktop and server use. The
defining component of a Linux distribution is the Linux kernel, an
operating system kernel first
released on
September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Many Linux distributions use
the word "Linux" in their name. The Free Software Foundation uses the name
GNU/Linux to refer to the operating system family, as well as specific
distributions, to emphasize that most Linux distributions are not just the
Linux kernel, and that they have in common not only the kernel, but also
numerous utilities and libraries, a large proportion of which are from the
GNU project.
GNU -
Ubuntu
How to Dual Boot Linux on your PC -
Virtual MachineOpen
Source refers to any program whose source code is
made available
for use or modification as users or other developers see fit. Open source
software is usually developed as a
public collaboration and made freely
available.
Free Software.
Open-Source
Software is a type of computer software in which source code is
released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the
rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any
purpose.
Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public
manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open
collaboration.
Android
Operating System is a
mobile operating system developed by Google, based on a modified
version of the Linux kernel and other open source software and designed
primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
In addition, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions,
Android Auto for cars, and Wear OS for wrist watches, each with a
specialized user interface. Variants of Android are also used on game
consoles, digital cameras, PCs and other electronics.
Open Source Operating Systems Comparisons (wiki)
Open Source Group Wants Windows 7 Source Code In A Blank Hard drive.
Freeing Windows 7 Opens Doors.
Cloud Ready lightweight
operating system - Backup Operating System
Red Hat Linux
Substitute Alternate Operating Systems
Human Operating System (HOS)
Server Operating System: A server operating system, also called a server OS, is an
Operating System specifically designed to
run on servers, which are specialized computers that operate within a
client/server architecture to serve the requests of client computers on
the network. The server operating system, or server OS, is the software
layer on top of which other software programs, or applications, can run on
the server hardware. Server operating systems help enable and facilitate
typical server roles such as Web server, mail server, file server,
database server, application server and print server.
Popular server
operating systems include Windows Server, Mac OS X Server, and variants of
Linux such as Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) and SUSE Linux Enterprise
Server. Server edition of Ubuntu Linux is free.
Menu Navigation
File
System controls how data is stored and retrieved. Without a file
system, information placed in a storage medium would be one large body of
data with no way to tell where one piece of information stops and the next
begins. By separating the data into pieces and giving each piece a name,
the information is easily isolated and identified. Taking its name from
the way paper-based information systems are named, each group of data is
called a "file". The structure and logic rules used to manage the groups
of information and their names is called a "file system".
Computer File Systems (wiki).
Operating System Boot Process
Turn on Power or
Wakeup. Power-On
Self Test checks all connected hardware, including RAM and secondary
storage devices to be sure it is all functioning properly. After POST
or Power On Self Test has
completed its job, the boot process searches the boot device list for a
device with a BIOS on it. (this is like when you first wake up in the morning
and you do a systems check to make sure that everything in your body is working normally).
In a computer the system looks for an active device in the boot device list, starting at the
top. When it finds an available device, it loads the
Basic Input / Output System (BIOS) from the device. The
BIOS provides
information on basic communications with peripheral devices, and
communications on the motherboard itself. The I/O system is
essential to the operation of the computer because it defines the
rules for communications between the CPU and the other devices attached to
the computer via the motherboard. The I/O system, sometimes found in
the "io.sys" file on the boot device, provides extensions to the BIOS
located in ROM on the motherboard. After ensuring the hardware
is functional and loading the BIOS, the computer proceeds to load the
operating system into memory. The specific OS is not relevant, as long
as its drivers can talk to the hardware on the machine. Any OS-specific
configuration
routines are also executed as part of loading the OS. Once the hardware functionality is confirmed and the
input/output system is loaded, the boot process begins loading the
operating system from the boot device. The OS is loaded into RAM, and
any instructions specific to the particular operating system are
executed. The actual operating system is somewhat irrelevant, as the
computer will follow the same boot pattern in any case.
Once the
previous steps are complete and the operating system is safely loaded
into RAM, the boot process relinquishes control to the OS. The OS then
proceeds to execute any pre-configured startup routines to define user
configuration or application execution. At the end of the handoff, the
computer is ready for use.
Once the OS is loaded, the boot process
turns control over to it, and any OS-specific startup applications
are executed by the OS. These startup routines vary from one user to
another, based on the user's preferences and desired configuration. When
the startup applications complete, your computer is ready to use,
or your mind is ready to use.
Booting is
starting up a computer or computer appliance until it can be used. It can
be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by software command.
After the power is switched on, the computer is relatively dumb and can
read only part of its storage called read-only memory (
ROM). There, a
small program is stored called firmware. It does power-on self-tests and,
most importantly, allows accessing other types of memory like a hard disk
and main memory. The firmware loads bigger programs into the computer's
main memory and runs it. In general purpose computers, but additionally in
smartphones and tablets, optionally a boot manager is run. The boot
manager lets a user choose which operating system to run and set more
complex parameters for it. The firmware or the boot manager then loads the
boot loader into the memory and runs it. This piece of software is able to
place an operating system kernel like Windows or Linux into the computer's
main memory and run it. Afterwards, the kernel runs so-called user space
software – well known is the
graphical user interface (GUI), which lets
the user log in to the computer or run some other applications. The whole
process may take seconds to tenths of seconds on modern day general
purpose computers.
Restarting a computer also is called
Reboot, which can
be "hard", e.g. after electrical power to the
CPU is switched from off to
on, or "soft", where the power is not cut. On some systems, a soft boot
may optionally clear RAM to zero. Both hard and soft booting can be
initiated by hardware such as a button press or by software command.
Booting is complete when the operative runtime system, typically operating
system and some applications, is attained. The process of returning
a computer from a state of hibernation or sleep does not involve booting.
Minimally, some embedded systems do not require a noticeable boot
sequence
to begin functioning and when turned on may simply run operational
programs that are stored in ROM. All computing systems are state machines,
and a reboot may be the only method to return to a designated zero-state
from an unintended, locked state. In addition to loading an operating
system or stand-alone utility, the boot process can also load a storage
dump program for diagnosing problems in an operating system. Boot is short
for bootstrap or bootstrap load and derives from the phrase to pull
oneself up by one's bootstraps. The usage calls attention to the
requirement that, if most software is loaded onto a computer by other
software already running on the computer, some mechanism must exist to
load the initial software onto the computer. Early computers used a
variety of ad-hoc methods to get a small program into memory to solve this
problem. The invention of read-only memory (ROM) of various types solved
this paradox by allowing computers to be shipped with a start up program
that could not be erased. Growth in the capacity of ROM has allowed ever
more elaborate start up procedures to be implemented.
Boot Device is any piece of hardware that
can read or contains the files required for a computer to start. For
example, a hard drive, floppy disk drive, CD-ROM drive, DVD drive, and USB
jump drive are all considered bootable devices.
Firmware
is a specific class of
computer software that provides the
low-level control for the device's specific
hardware. Firmware can either provide a standardized operating environment
for the device's more complex software (allowing more
hardware-independence), or, for less complex devices, act as the device's
complete operating system, performing all control, monitoring and data
manipulation functions. Typical examples of devices containing firmware
are embedded systems, consumer appliances, computers, computer
peripherals, and others. Almost all electronic devices beyond the simplest
contain some firmware. Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices
such as
ROM, EPROM, or
flash
memory. Changing the firmware of a device may rarely or never be done
during its lifetime; some firmware memory devices are permanently
installed and cannot be changed after manufacture. Common reasons for
updating firmware include fixing bugs or adding features to the device.
This may require ROM integrated circuits to be physically replaced, or
flash memory to be reprogrammed through a special procedure. Firmware such
as the ROM BIOS of a personal computer may contain only elementary basic
functions of a device and may only provide services to higher-level
software. Firmware such as the program of an embedded system may be the
only program that will run on the system and provide all of its functions.
Before the inclusion of
integrated circuits, other firmware devices
included a discrete semiconductor diode matrix. The Apollo guidance
computer had firmware consisting of a specially manufactured core memory
plane, called "core rope memory", where data was stored by physically
threading wires through (1) or around (0) the core storing each data bit.
Servers
Computer Network is a
telecommunications network which
allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing
devices exchange data with each other using a data link. The connections
between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media.
The best-known computer network is the
Internet.
Server
is a
computer program or a
device that provides functionality for other
programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is called the
client–server model, and a single overall computation is distributed
across multiple processes or devices. Servers can provide various
functionalities, often called "services", such as
sharing data or
resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a client.
A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use
multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may
connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers
are
Database Servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web
servers, game servers, and application servers.
Remote.
Proxy Server
is a server that acts as an
intermediary or
Link for requests from clients seeking resources from other
servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service,
such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource available from a
different server and the proxy server
evaluates the request as a way to
simplify and control its complexity. Proxies were invented to add
structure and encapsulation to distributed systems. Today, most proxies
are
web proxies, facilitating access to content on the World Wide Web,
providing anonymity and may be used to bypass IP address blocking.
(a computer system or an application).
VPN.
Automated Server Infrastructures -
Autonomous
Web
Server is server software, or
hardware
dedicated to running said software, that can satisfy
World Wide Web client requests. A web server
can, in general, contain one or more websites. A web server processes
incoming network requests over HTTP and several other related protocols.
The primary function of a web server is to store, process and deliver web
pages to clients. The communication between client and server takes place
using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Pages delivered are most
frequently HTML documents, which may include images, style sheets and
scripts in addition to the text content. A user agent, commonly a web
browser or web crawler, initiates communication by making a request for a
specific resource using HTTP and the server responds with the content of
that resource or an error message if unable to do so. The resource is
typically a real file on the server's secondary storage, but this is not
necessarily the case and depends on how the web server is implemented.
While the primary function is to serve content, a full implementation of
HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is
used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files. Many generic
web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages
(ASP),
PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor), or other scripting languages. This
means that the behaviour of the web server can be scripted in separate
files, while the actual server software remains unchanged. Usually, this
function is used to generate HTML documents dynamically ("on-the-fly") as
opposed to returning static documents. The former is primarily used for
retrieving or modifying information from databases. The latter is
typically much faster and more easily cached but cannot deliver dynamic
content. Web servers can frequently be found embedded in devices such as
printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web
server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or
administering the device in question. This usually means that no
additional software has to be installed on the client computer since only
a web browser is required (which now is included with most operating systems).
Networks
Network is an
interconnected system of
things or people.
Connect two or more computers or other devices. A system
of intersecting lines or channels. Network in electronics is a
system of
interconnected electronic components or
circuits. A static IP
address is an address that does not change. A dynamic IP address changes
over time.
Computer Network
is a digital
telecommunications network for sharing resources between nodes, which
are computing devices that use a common telecommunications technology.
Data transmission between nodes is supported over data links consisting of
physical cable media, such as twisted pair or
fibre-optic cables, or by
wireless methods, such as Wi-Fi,
microwave transmission, or free-space
optical communication. Network nodes are network computer devices that
originate, route and terminate data communication. They are generally
identified by network addresses, and can include hosts such as personal
computers, phones, and servers, as well as networking hardware such as
routers and switches. Two such devices can be said to be networked when
one device is able to exchange information with the other device, whether
or not they have a direct connection to each other. In most cases,
application-specific communications protocols are layered (i.e. carried as
payload) over other more general communications protocols. Computer
networks support many applications and services, such as access to the
World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application
and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and
instant messaging applications. Computer networks may be classified by
many criteria, for example, the transmission medium used to carry their
signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic,
the network's size, topology, traffic control mechanism, and
organizational intent. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
Network Science
is an academic field which studies complex networks such as
telecommunication networks, computer networks, biological networks,
cognitive and
semantic networks, and
social networks, considering distinct
elements or actors represented by nodes (or vertices) and the connections
between the elements or actors as
links (or edges). The field draws on
theories and methods including graph theory from mathematics, statistical
mechanics from physics, data mining and information visualization from
computer science, inferential modeling from statistics, and social
structure from sociology. The United States National Research Council
defines network science as "the study of network representations of
physical, biological, and social phenomena leading to predictive models of these phenomena.
Artificial
Neural Network -
Brain Network
-
Biological Network -
Mycorrhizal Network -
Virtual Private Network -
Social Network
-
Power Grid
Network Topology is the arrangement of the various elements
(
links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Essentially, it is the
topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically or
logically.
Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a
network, or between or across multiple networks. Routing is performed for
many types of networks, including circuit-switched networks, such as the
public switched telephone network (PSTN), computer networks, such as the
Internet, as well as in networks used in public and private
transportation, such as the system of streets, roads, and highways in
national
infrastructure.
Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between
computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the
Internet. Data sent through the internet, such as a web page or email, is
in the form of data packets. A packet is typically forwarded from one
router to another router through the networks that constitute an
internetwork (e.g. the Internet) until it reaches its destination node. A
router is connected to two or more data lines from different IP networks.
When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the
network address information in the packet header to determine the ultimate
destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing
policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. The most
familiar type of IP routers are home and small office routers that simply
forward IP packets between the home computers and the Internet. More
sophisticated routers, such as enterprise routers, connect large business
or ISP networks up to the powerful core routers that forward data at high
speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone.
MoFi Routers provide a local
Wi-Fi and ethernet
LAN network, and support tethering to a cellular hotspot or USB modem
to share your cellular connection.
Modem is
a hardware device that
converts data
from a digital format, intended for communication directly between devices
with specialized wiring, into one suitable for a transmission medium such
as telephone lines or radio. A modem modulates one or more carrier wave
signals to encode digital information for transmission, and demodulates
signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a
signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded reliably to reproduce
the original digital data. Modems can be used with almost any means of
transmitting analog signals, from light-emitting diodes to radio. A common
type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer into a
modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines, to be
demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital
data.
Home
Network is a type of computer network that facilitates communication
among devices within the close vicinity of a home.
Node in
networking is either a connection point, a redistribution point
(e.g. data communications equipment), or a communication endpoint (e.g.
data terminal equipment). The definition of a node depends on the network
and protocol layer referred to. A physical network node is an active
electronic device that is attached to a network, and is capable of
creating, receiving, or transmitting information over a
communications
channel. A passive distribution point such as a distribution frame or
patch panel is consequently not a node.
Hub is a node with a number of links that greatly exceeds the average.
Emergence of hubs is a consequence of a scale-free property of networks.
While hubs cannot be observed in a random network, they are expected to
emerge in scale-free networks. The uprise of hubs in scale-free networks
is associated with power-law distribution. Hubs have a significant impact
on the network topology. Hubs can be found in many real networks, such as
Brain Network or Internet.
Bridging Networking is a computer networking device that creates a
single aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network
segments. This function is called
network bridging. Bridging is distinct
from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to communicate
independently and yet remain separate, whereas bridging connects two
separate networks as if they were a single network. In the OSI model,
bridging is performed in the data link layer (layer 2). If one or more
segments of the bridged network are wireless, the device is known as a
wireless bridge. The main types of network bridging technologies are
simple bridging, multiport bridging, and learning or transparent bridging.
Audio Video Bridging set of technical standards which provide improved
synchronization, low-latency, and reliability for switched Ethernet
networks.
Link Aggregation applies to various methods of
combining
(aggregating) multiple network
connections in parallel in order to
increase throughput beyond what a single connection could sustain, and to
provide redundancy in case one of the links should fail. A Link
Aggregation Group (LAG) combines a number of physical ports together to
make a single high-bandwidth data path, so as to implement the traffic
load sharing among the member ports in the group and to enhance the
connection reliability.
Link Layer is the
lowest layer in the Internet protocol suite, the networking architecture
of the Internet. The link layer is the group of methods and communications
protocols confined to the link that a host is physically connected to. The
link is the physical and logical network component used to interconnect
hosts or nodes in the network and a link protocol is a suite of methods
and standards that operate only between adjacent network nodes of a
network segment. Despite the different semantics of layering in TCP/IP and
OSI, the link layer is sometimes described as a combination of the data
link layer (layer 2) and the physical layer (layer 1) in the OSI model.
However, the layers of TCP/IP are descriptions of operating scopes
(application, host-to-host, network, link) and not detailed prescriptions
of operating procedures, data semantics, or networking technologies. The
link layer is described in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123. RFC 1122 considers local
area network protocols such as Ethernet and other IEEE 802 networks (e.g.
Wi-Fi), and framing protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) to
belong to the link layer.
Distributed
Computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed
systems. A distributed system is a model in which components located on
networked computers communicate and coordinate their actions by passing
messages. The components interact with each other in order to achieve a
common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are:
concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure
of components. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems
to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications.
Network
Theory is the study of graphs as a representation of either
symmetric relations or, more generally, of asymmetric relations between
discrete objects. In computer science and network science, network theory
is a part of graph theory: a network can be defined as a graph in which
nodes and/or edges have attributes (e.g. names).
Network Monitoring is the use of a system that
constantly
monitors a computer network for slow or failing components and that
notifies the network administrator (via email, SMS or other alarms) in
case of outages or other trouble. Network monitoring is part of network
management.
Network Management is the process of administering and managing the computer networks of one
or many
organizations. Various services provided by network managers
include fault analysis, performance management, provisioning of network
and network devices, maintaining the quality of service, and so on.
Software that enables network administrators or network managers to
perform their functions is called network management software.
Network Science
-
Network Science -
Network Cultures
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Grids -
Coreos -
Omega -
Mesos
Network Partition refers to network decomposition into relatively
independent
subnets
for their separate optimization as well as network split due to the
failure of network devices. In both cases the partition-tolerant behavior
of subnets is expected. This means that even after network is partitioned
into multiple sub-systems, it still works correctly. For example, in a
network with multiple subnets where nodes A and B are located in one
subnet and nodes C and D are in another, a partition occurs if the switch
between the two subnets fails. In that case nodes A and B can no longer
communicate with nodes C and D, but all nodes A-D work the same as before.
Resilience in network is the
ability to provide and
maintain an
acceptable level of
service in the face of faults and
challenges to normal
operation.
Robustness in computer science is the ability of a computer system to
cope with errors during execution and
cope with erroneous input.
Fault-Tolerant Computer System are systems designed around the
concepts of fault tolerance. In essence, they must be able to continue
working to a level of satisfaction in the presence of faults.
Fault Tolerance is the property that enables a system to continue
operating properly in the event of the failure of (or one or more faults
within) some of its components. If its operating quality decreases at all,
the decrease is proportional to the severity of the failure, as compared
to a naively designed system in which even a small failure can cause total
breakdown. Fault tolerance is particularly sought after in
high-availability or
Life-Critical Systems. The ability of maintaining functionality when
portions of a system break down is referred to as graceful degradation.
Fail-Safe in engineering is a design feature or practice that in the
event of a specific type of failure, inherently responds in a way that
will cause no or minimal harm to other equipment, the environment or to
people.
Backup -
Redundancy
Network Packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a
packet-switched network. Computer communications links that do not support
packets, such as traditional point-to-point telecommunications links,
simply transmit data as a bit stream. When data is formatted into packets,
packet switching is possible and the bandwidth of the communication medium
can be better shared among users than with circuit switching.
Cluster Manager usually is a backend
graphical user interface
(GUI) or command-line software that runs on one or all cluster nodes (in
some cases it runs on a different server or cluster of management
servers.) The cluster manager works together with a cluster management
agent. These agents run on each node of the cluster to manage and
configure services, a set of services, or to manage and configure the
complete cluster server itself (
see super computing.)
In some cases the cluster manager is mostly used to dispatch work for the
cluster (or cloud) to perform. In this last case a subset of the cluster
manager can be a remote desktop application that is used not for
configuration but just to send work and get back work results from a
cluster. In other cases the cluster is more related to availability and
load balancing than to computational or specific service clusters.
Network Administrator maintains
computer infrastructures with emphasis on networking. Responsibilities may
vary between organizations, but on-site servers, software-network
interactions as well as network integrity/resilience are the key areas of
focus.
Downstream Networking refers to data sent from a network
service provider to a customer.
Upstream Networking refers to the direction in which data
can be transferred from the client to the server (uploading).
Network Operating System is a specialized operating system
for a network device such as a router, switch or firewall. An
operating system oriented to computer
networking, to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, to enable the sharing of data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. Typically over a
local area network (LAN), or private network. This sense is now largely
historical, as common operating systems generally now have such features
included.
Professional Services Networks are networks of independent
firms who come together to cost-effectively provide services to clients
through an organized framework.
Social Networks -
Collaborations
Value Network Analysis is a methodology for understanding,
using, visualizing, optimizing internal and external value networks and
complex economic ecosystems. The methods include visualizing sets of
relationships from a dynamic whole systems perspective. Robust network
analysis approaches are used for understanding value conversion of
financial and non-financial assets, such as intellectual capital, into
other forms of value.
Value Network is a business analysis perspective that
describes social and technical resources within and between businesses.
The nodes in a value network represent people (or roles). The nodes are
connected by interactions that represent tangible and intangible
deliverables. These
deliverables take the
form of knowledge or other intangibles and/or financial value.
Value networks exhibit
interdependence. They account for the overall worth of products and
services. Companies have both internal and external value networks.
Encapsulation Networking is a method of designing modular
communication protocols in which logically separate functions in the
network are abstracted from their underlying structures by inclusion or
information hiding within higher level objects.
Dynamic Network Analysis is an emergent scientific field
that brings together traditional social network analysis (SNA), link
analysis (LA), social simulation and multi-agent systems (MAS) within
network science and network theory.
Artificial Neural Network
(ai) -
Matrix (construct)
Cross Linking is a bond that links one polymer chain to
another. They can be
covalent bonds or ionic bonds.
Virtual Private Network (VPN) -
Internet -
Internet Connection Types
-
Fiber Optics
Network Domain is an administrative grouping of multiple private
computer networks or hosts within the same infrastructure. Domains can be
identified using a domain name; domains which need to be accessible from
the public Internet can be assigned a globally unique name within the
Domain Name System (DNS).
Public Network
is a type of network wherein anyone, namely the general public, has access
and through it can connect to other networks or the Internet. This is in
contrast to a
private network, where
restrictions and access rules are established in order to relegate access
to a select few.
Search Engines -
Levels of Thinking -
Information Technology
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line is a type of digital
subscriber line (DSL) technology, a data communications technology that
enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines rather than a
conventional voiceband modem can provide. ADSL differs from the less
common symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL). In ADSL, Bandwidth and
bit rate are said to be asymmetric, meaning greater toward the customer
premises (downstream) than the reverse (upstream). Providers usually
market ADSL as a service for consumers for Internet access for primarily
downloading content from the Internet, but not serving content accessed by others. (ADSL).
Telephone Networks
Cellular Network is a communication network where the last link is
wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each
served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or
base station. This base station provides the cell with the network
coverage which can be used for transmission of voice, data and others. A
cell might use a different set of
frequencies from neighboring cells, to
avoid interference and provide guaranteed service quality within each
cell.
Cellular Repeater is known as
cell phone
signal booster or amplifier, which is a type of bi-directional
amplifier used to improve cell phone reception. A cellular repeater system
commonly consists of a donor antenna that receives and transmits signal
from nearby cell towers, coaxial cables, a signal amplifier, and an indoor
rebroadcast antenna.
Weboost gives you
better cell signal wherever you are.
Internet Connection using Cellphone
Towers.
Wi-Fi
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Internet -
Internet Connection Types
Pep Wave System. MAX routers will keep you connected using dual SIM
cards and our patented SpeedFusion Bandwidth Bonding technology.
Wi-Fi is
a technology for wireless
local area networking
with devices based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of
the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to
products that successfully complete interoperability certification
testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers,
video-game consoles,
phones
and tablets, digital cameras, smart TVs, digital audio players and modern
printers. Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN
and a
wireless access point. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range
of about 20 meters (66 feet) indoors and a greater range outdoors. Hotspot
coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio
waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple
overlapping access points. Depiction of a device
sending information
wirelessly to another device, both connected to the local network, in
order to print a document. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz (12
cm) UHF and 5.8 gigahertz (5 cm) SHF ISM radio bands. Anyone within range
with a wireless modem can attempt to access the
network; because of this,
Wi-Fi is more vulnerable to attack (called eavesdropping) than wired
networks. Wi-Fi Protected Access is a family of technologies created to
protect information moving across Wi-Fi networks and includes solutions
for personal and enterprise networks. Security features of Wi-Fi Protected
Access constantly evolve to include stronger protections and new security
practices as the security landscape changes.
Microwaves.
Bluetooth is a
wireless technology standard used for exchanging data between fixed
and mobile devices over short distances using short-wavelength
UHF radio waves in the industrial,
scientific and medical radio bands, from 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, and building
personal area networks (PANs). It was originally conceived as a wireless
alternative to RS-232 data cables. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth
Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 35,000 member companies
in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer
electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no
longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of
the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the
trademarks. A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it
as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which
are licensed to individual qualifying devices. As of 2009, Bluetooth
integrated circuit chips ship approximately 920 million units annually.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation is the name of a family of digital
modulation methods and a related family of analog modulation methods
widely used in modern telecommunications to transmit information. It
conveys two analog message signals, or two digital bit streams, by
changing (modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using the
amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation scheme or amplitude
modulation or AM analog modulation scheme. The two carrier waves of the
same frequency are out of phase with each other by 90°, a condition known
as orthogonality or quadrature. The transmitted signal is created by
adding the two carrier waves together. At the receiver, the two waves can
be coherently separated (demodulated) because of their orthogonality
property. Another key property is that the modulations are
low-frequency/low-bandwidth waveforms compared to the carrier frequency,
which is known as the narrowband assumption. Phase modulation (analog PM)
and phase-shift keying (digital PSK) can be regarded as a special case of
QAM, where the amplitude of the transmitted signal is a constant, but its
phase varies. This can also be extended to frequency modulation (FM) and
frequency-shift keying (FSK), for these can be regarded as a special case
of phase modulation. QAM is used extensively as a modulation scheme for
digital telecommunication systems, such as in 802.11 Wi-Fi standards.
Arbitrarily high spectral efficiencies can be achieved with QAM by setting
a suitable constellation size, limited only by the noise level and
linearity of the communications channel. QAM is being used in optical
fiber systems as bit rates increase; QAM16 and QAM64 can be optically
emulated with a 3-path interferometer.
Telephone
is a
telecommunications
device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they
are too far apart to be heard directly. A
Telephone converts
sound,
typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals
suitable for transmission via cables or other transmission media over long
distances, and replays such signals simultaneously in audible form to its
user.
Plain Old Telephone Service is a retronym for voice-grade telephone
service employing analog signal transmission over copper loops. POTS was
the standard service offering from telephone companies from 1876 until
1988 in the United States when the Integrated Services Digital Network or ISDN. Basic Rate Interface
or BRI was introduced, followed by cellular
telephone systems, and voice over IP or VoIP. POTS remains the basic form
of residential and small business service connection to the telephone
network in many parts of the world. The term reflects the technology that
has been available since the introduction of the public telephone system
in the late 19th century, in a form mostly unchanged despite the
introduction of Touch-Tone dialing, electronic telephone exchanges and
fiber-optic communication into the public switched telephone network
or PSTN for short.
Tin Can Telephone
is a type of acoustic (non-electrical)
speech-transmitting device made
up of two tin cans, paper cups or similarly shaped items attached to
either end of a taut string or wire. It is a form of mechanical telephony,
where sound is converted into and then conveyed by vibrations along a
liquid or solid medium, and then reconverted back to sound.
Phone Network
Landline refers to a phone that uses a metal wire or
fibre optic
telephone line for transmission as distinguished from a mobile cellular
line, which uses radio waves for transmission.
Ethernet is a family of
computer networking technologies
commonly used in
local area networks or LAN, metropolitan area networks
or MAN, and wide area networks or WAN.
HomePNA is an incorporated non-profit industry association
of companies that develops and standardizes technology for
home networking
over the existing coaxial cables and telephone wiring within homes, so new
wires do not need to be installed.
Interactive Voice Response is a technology that allows telephone users
to interact with a computer-operated telephone system through the use of
voice and DTMF tones input with a keypad.
Automated
Attendant allows callers to be automatically transferred to an
extension without the intervention of an operator/receptionist.
Answering
Machine (wiki)
Communication Laws
Communication Law is dedicated to the proposition that
freedom of speech is relevant and essential to every aspect of the
communication discipline.
Communications Act of 1934 as created for the purpose of
regulating interstate and foreign commerce in communication by wire and
radio so as to make available, so far as possible, to all the people of
the United States a rapid, efficient, nationwide, and worldwide wire and
radio communication service with adequate facilities at reasonable
charges, for the purpose of the national defense, and for the purpose of
securing a more effective execution of this policy by centralizing
authority theretofore granted by law to several agencies and by granting
additional authority with respect to interstate and foreign commerce in
wire and radio communication, there is hereby created a commission to be
known as the 'Federal Communications Commission', which shall be
constituted as hereinafter provided, and which shall execute and enforce
the provisions of this Act.
Telecommunications Policy is a framework of law directed by
government and the Regulatory Commissions, most notably the Federal
Communications Commission.
Communications Protocol
is a system of rules that allow two or more entities of a communications
system to transmit information via any kind of variation of a physical
quantity. These are the rules or standard that defines the syntax,
semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery
methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a
combination of both.
Signal Corps develops, tests, provides, and manages
communications and information systems support for the command and control
of combined arms forces.
International Communications Law
consists primarily of a number of bilateral and multilateral
communications treaties.
Outline of Communication
(pdf) -
Communicating Knowledge
Information and Communications Technology
is an extended term for information technology (IT) which stresses the
role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications
(telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary
enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which
enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. (ICT)
Unified Communications
is a marketing buzzword describing the integration of real-time enterprise
communication services such as instant messaging (chat), presence
information, voice (including IP telephony), mobility features (including
extension mobility and single number reach), audio, web & video
conferencing, fixed-mobile convergence (FMC), desktop sharing, data
sharing (including web connected electronic interactive whiteboards), call
control and speech recognition with non-real-time communication services
such as unified messaging (integrated voicemail, e-mail, SMS and fax). UC
is not necessarily a single product, but a set of products that provides a
consistent unified user interface and user experience across multiple
devices and media types. In its broadest sense, UC can encompass all forms
of communications that are exchanged via a network to include other forms
of communications such as Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) and digital
signage Communications as they become an integrated part of the network
communications deployment and may be directed as one-to-one communications
or broadcast communications from one to many. UC allows an individual to
send a message on one medium and receive the same communication on another
medium. For example, one can receive a voicemail message and choose to
access it through e-mail or a cell phone. If the sender is online
according to the presence information and currently accepts calls, the
response can be sent immediately through text chat or a video call.
Otherwise, it may be sent as a non-real-time message that can be accessed
through a variety of media.
Super Computers
Supercomputer
is a computer with a high level of computing performance
compared to a
general-purpose computer. Performance of a supercomputer is
measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of
million instructions per second (MIPS). As of 2015, there are
supercomputers which can perform up to quadrillions of FLOPS.
Floating
Point Operations Per Second or FLOPS, is a measure of computer
performance, useful in fields of scientific computations that require
floating-point calculations. For such cases it is a more accurate measure
than measuring
instructions per second.
Floating-Point Arithmetic is arithmetic using formulaic representation
of
real numbers as an approximation so as
to support a
trade-off
between range and precision. For this reason, floating-point computation
is often found in systems which include very small and very large real
numbers, which require fast processing times. A number is, in general,
represented approximately to a fixed number of
significant digits (the significand) and scaled using an exponent in
some fixed base; the base for the scaling is normally two, ten, or
sixteen.
Petascale Computing is one quadrillion
Floating Point operations per second.
Exascale Computing is a
billion billion calculations per
second. Exascale computing is a type of ultra-powerful
supercomputing, with systems performing billions of computations per
second utilizing an infrastructure of CPUs and GPUs to process and analyze
data. (exaFLOPS).
Frontier supercomputer, or OLCF-5, is the world's first exascale
supercomputer. It is hosted at the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility
(OLCF) in Tennessee, United States and first operational in 2022. As of
December 2023, Frontier is the world's fastest supercomputer. It is based
on the Cray EX and is the successor to Summit (OLCF-4). Frontier achieved
an Rmax of 1.102 exaFLOPS, which is 1.102 quintillion operations per
second, using AMD CPUs and GPUs. Supercomputers, which harness the power
of multiple interconnected processing cores, use an immense amount of
energy, with some running at as much as 30 megawatts. In a year, these
supercomputers consume as much power as a small city.
In 1973, an MIT computer predicted when
civilization will end. Super computers
can tell us our future and
predict dangerous life threatening hazards. But
supercomputers
can also confirm the
negligence
from greedy and
corrupt companies and
politicians. This is why the public
will not hear about these predictions or calculations. Mass murder is a
business, and
corrupt corporations and
politicians doesn't want the public to know this, or know about their
devious psychopathic behavior that is
causing deaths now and will increase the amount of deaths in the
future. Supercomputers can be used to model
potential future hazards based on current data and trends, and
can predict how many humans will die. But corporate greed and corruption wont
let you see the data. But they will give you
chabot's
to play with. People in power have all the
advanced technology
that the world needs for
preservation
and
protection. But
our technologies are being wasted and
misused for
selfish and narrow-mined goals. The lunatics have taken over the
asylum and they are driving humanity off a cliff. The sad part is, these
scumbags will survive the crash, which means that these scumbags will
continue to do evil and continue do ignorant things far into the future. A
living hell will soon have an upgrade. They're not just
using
super computers to
spy on people,
they are also
using this technology to kill whistleblowers,
journalists and activists. The scumbags in power have everything they need
to implement a
police state,
it's just a matter of when. You can't handle the truth, especially if you
don't know the truth.
Global
Warming -
Pollution
-
Death Rates
Dojo
is a Tesla supercomputer designed and built by Tesla for computer vision
video processing and recognition. It will be used for training Tesla's
machine learning models to improve its Full Self-Driving advanced
driver-assistance system. According to Tesla, it went into production in
July 2023.
Titan
is an upgrade of
Jaguar, a previous supercomputer at Oak Ridge, that uses graphics
processing units (GPUs) in addition to conventional central processing
units (CPUs). Titan is the first such hybrid to perform over 10 petaFLOPS.
Titan at
Oak Ridge
National Laboratory will soon be eclipsed by machines capable of
performing a
billion billion floating-point operations per second.
Sierra Supercomputer or ATS-2, is a supercomputer built for the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for use by the National Nuclear
Security Administration as the second Advanced Technology System. It is
primarily used for predictive applications in stockpile stewardship,
helping to assure the safety, reliability and effectiveness of the
nation's nuclear weapons. Sierra is very similar in architecture to the
Summit supercomputer built for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The
Sierra system uses IBM POWER9 CPUs in conjunction with Nvidia Tesla V100
GPUs. The nodes in Sierra are Witherspoon S922LC OpenPOWER servers with
two GPUs per CPU and four GPUs per node. These nodes are connected with
EDR InfiniBand.
Summit Supercomputer or OLCF-4, is a supercomputer developed by IBM
for use at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which as of June 8, 2018 is the
fastest supercomputer in the world, capable of 200 petaflops. Its current
LINPACK benchmark is clocked at 122.3 petaflops. As of June 2018, the
supercomputer is also the 5th most energy efficient in the world with a
measured power efficiency of 13.889 GFlops/watts. Summit is the first
supercomputer to reach exascale speed, achieving 1.88 exaflops during a
genomic analysis and is expected to reach 3.3 exaflops using mixed
precision calculations.
K Computer
meaning 10 quadrillion, is a supercomputer manufactured by Fujitsu which
is based on a distributed memory architecture with over 80,000 computer
nodes.
Aurora is a planned state-of-the-art exascale supercomputer designed
by Intel/Cray for the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Argonne Leadership
Computing Facility (ALCF). The system is expected to become the first
supercomputer in the United States to break the exaFLOPS barrier.
Nvidia DGX-2 Largest GPU, 2 petaFLOPS system that combines 16 fully
interconnected GPUs for 10X the
deep
learning performance.
Discover the
World’s Largest GPU: NVIDIA DGX-2 (youtube) -
VR.
Artificial
Intelligent Chatbots
Multi-value logic transistor based on zinc oxide, capable of two stable
intermediate states between
0 and 1.
AI can be trained to
read the millions of research papers,
scientific reports and peer reviewed scientific publications, that people
have no time to read. Then you can use algorithms to look for patterns
that would solve a problem or find a possible answer to a particular
problem.
Making artificial intelligence more energy efficient. Researchers
develop state-of-the-art device. Energy consumption from artificial
intelligence could be reduced by a factor of at least 1,000 with this
device. A new model where the data never leaves the memory, called
computational random-access memory. The International Energy Agency
(IEA) issued a global energy use forecast in March of 2024, forecasting
that energy consumption for AI is likely to double from 460 terawatt-hours
(TWh) in 2022 to 1,000 TWh in 2026. This is roughly equivalent to the
electricity consumption of the entire country of Japan. According to the
new paper's authors, a CRAM-based machine learning inference accelerator
is estimated to achieve an improvement on the order of 1,000. Another
example showed an energy savings of 2,500 and 1,700 times compared to
traditional methods.
Classical computers can keep up with quantum computers and sometimes
surpass them. A team of scientists has devised means for classical
computing to mimic a quantum computing with far fewer resources than
previously thought. The scientists' results show that classical computing
can be reconfigured to perform faster and more accurate calculations than
state-of-the-art quantum computers. Conventional computers process
information in the form of digital bits (0s and 1s), while quantum
computers deploy quantum bits (qubits) to store quantum information in
values between
0 and 1. Under
certain conditions this ability to process and store information in qubits
can be used to design quantum algorithms that drastically outperform their
classical counterparts.
Quantum Computing
Quantum Computer studies theoretical computation systems
(quantum computers) that make direct use of
quantum-mechanical phenomena,
such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data.
Quantum computers are different from binary digital electronic computers
based on
transistors. Whereas common digital computing requires that the
data be encoded into binary digits (bits), each of which is always in one
of two definite states (0 or 1), quantum computation uses quantum bits,
which can be in
superpositions of states. A quantum Turing machine is a
theoretical model of such a computer, and is also known as the universal
quantum computer. The field of quantum computing was initiated by the work
of Paul Benioff and Yuri Manin in 1980, Richard Feynman in 1982, and David
Deutsch in 1985. A quantum computer with spins as quantum bits was also
formulated for use as a quantum space–time in 1968.
Key component to scale up quantum computing invented.
Memristor.
Quantum Supremacy is defined as the potential ability of quantum
computing devices to solve problems that normal computers simply can’t.
The weaker quantum advantage is the potential to solve problems merely
faster. In computational-complexity-theoretic terms, this generally means
providing a superpolynomial speedup over the best known or possible
classical
algorithm.
Essential Quantum Computer Component Downsized by Two Orders of Magnitude.
Devices built to shield qubits from unwanted signals, known as
nonreciprocal devices, produce magnetic fields themselves. A traffic
roundabout for photons, is only about a tenth of a millimeter in size,
and—more importantly—it is not magnetic. To receive a signal such as a
microwave photon from a qubit, while preventing noise and other spurious
signals from traveling toward the qubit, they use nonreciprocal devices,
such as
isolators or circulators. These devices control the signal traffic.
The 'roundabouts' the group has designed consist of aluminum circuits on a
silicon chip and they are the first to be based on micromechanical
oscillators: Two small silicon beams oscillate on the chip like the
strings of a guitar and interact with the electrical circuit. These
devices are tiny in size—only about a tenth of a millimeter in diameter.
This is one of the major advantages the new component has over its
traditional predecessors, which were a few centimeters wide.
Silicon provides means to control quantum bits for faster algorithms.
Quantum bits are now easier to manipulate for devices in quantum
computing, thanks to enhanced spin-orbit interaction in
silicon.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. Researchers Develop
Magnetic Switch to Turn On and Off a Strange Quantum Property. When an
electron moves around a closed path, ending up where it began, its
physical state may or may not be the same as when it left. Now, there is a
way to control the outcome, thanks to an international research group led
by scientists at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
Subjecting a quantum computer’s qubits to quasi-rhythmic laser pulses
based on the Fibonacci sequence. Physicists demonstrated a way of storing
quantum information that is less prone to errors.
Reversible Computing is a model of computing where the computational
process to some extent is reversible, i.e., time-invertible. In a model of
computation that uses deterministic transitions from one state of the
abstract machine to another, a necessary condition for reversibility is
that the relation of the mapping from states to their successors must be
one-to-one. Reversible computing is generally considered an unconventional
form of computing.
Landauer's Principle is a physical principle pertaining to the lower
theoretical limit of energy consumption of computation. It holds that "any
logically irreversible manipulation of information, such as the erasure of
a bit or the merging of two computation paths, must be accompanied by a
corresponding entropy increase in non-information-bearing degrees of
freedom of the information-processing apparatus or its environment".
Another way of phrasing Landauer's principle is that if an observer loses
information about a physical system, the observer loses the ability to
extract work from that system.[why?] If no information is erased,
computation may in principle be achieved which is thermodynamically
reversible, and require no release of heat. This has led to considerable
interest in the study of reversible computing.
Transistor
stores a single “bit” of information.
If the transistor is “on,” it holds a 1, and if it’s “off,” it
holds a 0.
ON=1 / OFF=0
Qubit can store a
Zero's and Ones simultaneously
or two Magnetic Fields at once.
Qubit is a unit of
quantum information—the quantum analogue of the classical bit. A qubit is
a two-state quantum-mechanical system, such as the polarization of a
single photon: here the two states are vertical polarization and
horizontal polarization. In a classical system, a bit would have to be in
one state or the other. However, quantum mechanics allows the qubit to be
in a superposition of both states at the same time, a property that is
fundamental to quantum computing.
(0.01
Kelvin) -
Entanglement -
Interaction Strengths -
Macroscopic
Scale -
Topology
Scientists managed to instantly “teleport” data between two chips that are
not connected for the very first time. Technical University of Denmark
have created “chip-scale devices” that are able to utilize quantum physics
to manipulate single particles of light. The team’s findings have been
published in the journal Nature Physics.
Long-lived storage of a Photonic Qubit for worldwide Teleportation.
Light is an ideal carrier for quantum information encoded on single
photons, but transfer over long distances is inefficient and unreliable
due to losses. Direct teleportation between the end nodes of a network
can be utilized to prevent the loss of precious quantum bits. First,
remote
entanglement
has to be created between the nodes; then, a suitable measurement on the
sender side triggers the "spooky action at a distance," i.e. the
instantaneous transport of the qubit to the receiver's node. However, the
quantum bit may be rotated when it reaches the receiver and hence has to
be reverted. To this end, the necessary information has to be classically
communicated from sender to receiver. This takes a certain amount of time,
during which the qubit has to be preserved at the receiver. Considering
two network nodes at the most distant places on earth, this corresponds to
a time span of 66 milliseconds.
Dephasing is a
mechanism that recovers classical behavior from a quantum system. It
refers to the ways in which coherence caused by perturbation decays over
time, and the system returns to the state before perturbation. It is an
important effect in molecular and atomic spectroscopy, and in the
condensed matter physics of mesoscopic devices.
Superposition
Principle states that, for all
linear systems, the net
response at a given place and time caused by two or more stimuli is the
sum of the responses that would have been caused by each stimulus
individually. So that if input
A produces response
X and
input
B produces response
Y then input (
A +
B)
produces response (
X +
Y).
Magnetic
Flux Quantum (wiki) -
Magnetic Flux
(wiki)
Quantum Annealing is a metaheuristic for finding the global
minimum of a given objective function over a given set of candidate
solutions (candidate states), by a process using quantum fluctuations.
Quantum annealing is used mainly for problems where the search space is
discrete (combinatorial optimization problems) with many local minima;
such as finding the ground state of a spin glass.
Monte Carlo Method are a broad class of computational algorithms that
rely on repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results. Their
essential idea is using randomness to solve problems that might be
deterministic in principle. They are often used in physical and
mathematical problems and are most useful when it is difficult or
impossible to use other approaches. Monte Carlo methods are mainly used in
three distinct problem classes: optimization, numerical integration, and
generating draws from a probability distribution.
Quadratic Unconstrained Binary Optimization (wiki)
SQUID stands for
superconducting
quantum interference device, which is a very sensitive
magnetometer used to measure extremely
subtle magnetic fields, based on superconducting loops containing
Josephson junctions.
Josephson Effect is the phenomenon of supercurrent—i.e. a current that
flows indefinitely long without any voltage applied—across a device known
as a Josephson junction (JJ), which consists of two superconductors
coupled by a weak link. The weak link can consist of a thin insulating
barrier (known as a superconductor–insulator–superconductor junction, or
S-I-S), a short section of non-superconducting metal (S-N-S), or a
physical constriction that weakens the superconductivity at the point of
contact (S-s-S).
Superconducting Tunnel Junction is an electronic device consisting of
two superconductors separated by a very thin layer of insulating
material. Current passes through the junction via the process of quantum
tunneling. The STJ is a type of Josephson junction, though not all the
properties of the STJ are described by the Josephson effect. These devices
have a wide range of applications, including high-sensitivity detectors of
electromagnetic radiation, magnetometers, high speed digital circuit
elements, and quantum computing circuits.
Quantum Tunnelling refers to the
quantum mechanical phenomenon where a
particle tunnels through a
barrier that it classically could not surmount. This plays an essential
role in several physical phenomena, such as the
nuclear fusion that occurs
in main sequence stars like the Sun. It has important applications to
modern devices such as the tunnel diode, quantum computing, and the
scanning tunnelling microscope.
D-Wave Systems is a
quantum computing company, based in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
D-Wave is the first company in the world to sell quantum computers. (10
Million Dollars).
2048 (video game) The game's objective is to slide numbered tiles on a
grid to combine them to create a tile with the number 2048; however, you
can keep playing the game, creating tiles with larger numbers (such as a
32,768 tile).
Non-Abelian -
Anyon
is a type of
quasiparticle that occurs
only in two-dimensional systems, with properties much less restricted than
fermions and bosons. In general, the operation of exchanging two identical
particles may cause a global phase shift but cannot affect observables.
Anyons are generally classified as abelian or non-abelian. Abelian anyons
have been detected and play a major role in the fractional quantum Hall
effect. Non-abelian anyons have not been definitively detected, although
this is an active area of research.
Skyrmion
is a topologically stable field configuration of a certain class of
non-linear sigma models. It was originally proposed as a model of the
nucleon by Tony Skyrme in 1962. As a topological soliton in the pion
field, it has the remarkable property of being able to model, with
reasonable accuracy, multiple low-energy properties of the nucleon, simply
by fixing the nucleon radius. It has since found application in solid
state physics, as well as having ties to certain areas of string theory.
Skyrmions as topological objects are important in solid state physics,
especially in the emerging technology of spintronics. A two-dimensional
magnetic skyrmion, as a topological object, is formed, e.g., from a 3D
effective-spin "hedgehog" (in the field of micromagnetics: out of a
so-called "Bloch point" singularity of homotopy degree +1) by a
stereographic projection, whereby the positive north-pole spin is mapped
onto a far-off edge circle of a 2D-disk, while the negative south-pole
spin is mapped onto the center of the disk. In a spinor field such as for
example photonic or polariton fluids the skyrmion topology corresponds to
a full Poincaré beam (which is, a quantum vortex of spin comprising all
the states of polarization). Skyrmions have been reported, but not
conclusively proven, to be in Bose-Einstein condensates, superconductors,
thin magnetic films and in chiral nematic liquid crystals. As a model of
the nucleon, the topological stability of the Skyrmion can be interpreted
as a statement that the baryon number is conserved; i.e. that the proton
does not decay. The Skyrme Lagrangian is essentially a one-parameter model
of the nucleon. Fixing the parameter fixes the proton radius, and also
fixes all other low-energy properties, which appear to be correct to about
30%. It is this predictive power of the model that makes it so appealing
as a model of the nucleon. Hollowed-out skyrmions form the basis for the
chiral bag model (Cheshire Cat model) of the nucleon. Exact results for
the duality between the fermion spectrum and the topological winding
number of the non-linear sigma model have been obtained by Dan Freed. This
can be interpreted as a foundation for the duality between a QCD
description of the nucleon (but consisting only of quarks, and without
gluons) and the Skyrme model for the nucleon. The skyrmion can be
quantized to form a
quantum superposition of baryons
and resonance states. It could be predicted from some nuclear matter
properties.
Method for Improving Quantum Information Processing. A new method for
splitting
light beams into their frequency
modes and encoding photons with quantum information.
World's first logical quantum processor. A team has realized a key
milestone in the quest for stable, scalable quantum computing. For the
first time, the team has created a programmable, logical quantum
processor, capable of encoding up to 48 logical qubits, and executing
hundreds of logical gate operations. Their system is the first
demonstration of large-scale algorithm execution on an error-corrected
quantum computer, heralding the advent of early fault-tolerant, or
reliably uninterrupted, quantum computation.
Scalable and fully coupled quantum-inspired processor solves optimization
problems. Researchers experimentally demonstrate the first fully
connected annealing processor that can be scaled up across multiple chips.
Kink State control may provide pathway to quantum electronics.
Researchers develop a robust quantum highway with switch to control
electron movement. We have developed a quantum highway system that could
carry electrons without collision, be programmed to direct current flow
and is potentially scalable -- all of which lays a strong foundation for
future studies exploring the fundamental science and application
potentials of this system.
Superconducting Qubit 3D integration prospects bolstered by new research.
As superconducting qubit technology grows beyond one-dimensional chains of
nearest neighbour coupled qubits, larger-scale two-dimensional arrays are
a natural next step. that may be entangled with each other.
Prototypical two-dimensional arrays have been built, but the challenge of
routing control wiring and readout circuitry has, so far, prevented
the development of high fidelity qubit arrays of size 3×3 or larger. We
have developed a process for fabricating fully superconducting
interconnects that are materially compatible with our existing, high
fidelity, aluminum on silicon qubits. “This fabrication process opens the
door to the possibility of the close integration of two superconducting
circuits with each other or, as would be desirable in the case of
superconducting qubits, the close integration of one high-coherence qubit
device with a dense, multi-layer, signal-routing device”.
Stable Quantum Gate created - Stable Quantum Bits
Cost-Effective Quantum moves a step closer. The National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Colorado, prove the viability of a
measurement-device-independent
quantum
key distribution (QKD) system, based on readily available hardware
such as distributed feedback (DFB) lasers and field-programmable gate
arrays (FPGA) electronics, which enable time-bin qubit preparation and
time-tagging, and active feedback systems that allow for compensation of
time-varying properties of photons after transmission through deployed
fibre.
Qubit
Oxford Quantum.
Excitonic Insulator. Rules for superconductivity mirrored in device's
braided qubits could form component of topological quantum computer.
Excitonium is a new form of matter soft plasmon.
The Tianhe-2 is the most powerful supercomputer built to
date, demands 24 megawatts of power, while the
human brain runs on just 10 watts.
Biological Neuron-Based Computer Chips (wetchips)
Artificial Intelligence
TOP 500 list of
the World’s Top Supercomputers
ASC Sequoia will have 1.6 petabytes of memory, 96 racks,
98,304 compute nodes, and 1.6 million cores. Though orders of magnitude
more powerful than such predecessor systems as ASC Purple and BlueGene/L,
Sequoia will be 160 times more power efficient than Purple and 17 times
more than BlueGene/L. Is expected to be one of the most powerful
supercomputers in the world, equivalent to the 6.7 billion people on earth
using hand calculators and working together on a calculation 24 hours per
day, 365 days a year, for 320 years…to do what Sequoia will do in one
hour.
DARPA or
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, is an agency of the U.S.
Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging
technologies for use by the military.
Darpa.
IARPA or Intelligence
Advanced Research Projects Activity, invests in high-risk, high-payoff
research programs to tackle some of the most difficult challenges of the
agencies and disciplines in the Intelligence Community (IC).
Institute for Computational Cosmology is to advance
fundamental knowledge in
cosmology.
Topics of active research include: the nature of dark matter and dark
energy, the evolution of cosmic structure, the formation of galaxies, and
the determination of fundamental parameters.
New Building Block in Quantum Computing demonstrated. Researchers have
demonstrated a new level of control over photons encoded with quantum
information. The team's experimental system allows them to manipulate the
frequency of photons to bring about superposition, a state that enables
quantum operations and computing. We believe that the brain stores
information about our surroundings in so-called cognitive spaces. This
concerns not only geographical data, but also relationships between
objects and experience. The term 'cognitive spaces' refers to mental maps
in which we arrange our experience. Everything that we encounter has
physical properties, whether a person or an object, and can therefore be
arranged along different dimensions. The very regular activation pattern
of grid cells can also be observed in humans -- but importantly, not only
during navigation through geographical spaces. Grids cells are also active
when learning new concepts.
Fiber Optics
Artificial Intelligent Computing (Turing - Machine learning)
I
n
a step forward for orbitronics, scientists break the link between a
quantum material's spin and orbital states. The advance opens a path
toward a new generation of logic and memory devices that could be 10,000
times faster than today's. In designing electronic devices, scientists
look for ways to manipulate and control three basic properties of
electrons: their charge; their spin states, which give rise to magnetism;
and the shapes of the fuzzy clouds they form around the nuclei of atoms,
which are known as orbitals.
S
eeing
electron movement at fastest speed ever could help unlock next-level
quantum computing. New technique could enable processing speeds a
million to a billion times faster than today's computers and spur progress
in many-body physics. The key to maximizing traditional or quantum
computing speeds lies in our ability to understand how electrons behave in
solids, and researchers have now captured electron movement in attoseconds--the
fastest speed yet. To see electron movement within two-dimensional quantum
materials, researchers typically use short bursts of focused extreme
ultraviolet (XUV) light. Those bursts can reveal the activity of electrons
attached to an atom's nucleus. But the large amounts of energy carried in
those bursts prevent clear observation of the electrons that travel
through semiconductors -- as in current computers and in materials under
exploration for quantum computers. U-M engineers and partners employ two
light pulses with energy scales that match that of those movable
semiconductor electrons. The first, a pulse of infrared light, puts the
electrons into a state that allows them to travel through the material.
The second, a lower-energy terahertz pulse, then forces those electrons
into controlled head-on collision trajectories. The crashes produce bursts
of light, the precise timing of which reveals interactions behind quantum
information and exotic quantum materials alike. "We used two pulses -- one
that is energetically matched with the state of the electron, and then a
second pulse that causes the state to change, we can essentially film how
these two pulses change the electron's quantum state and then express that
as a function of time. The two-pulse sequence allows time measurement with
a precision better than one percent of the oscillation period of the
terahertz radiation that accelerates the electrons. Quantum materials
could possess robust magnetic, superconductive or superfluid phases, and
quantum computing represents the potential for solving problems that would
take too long on classical computers. Pushing such quantum capabilities
will eventually create solutions to problems that are currently out of our
reach. That starts with basic observational science.
Supercomputers without Waste Heat. Physicists explore
superconductivity for information processing. Lossless electrical transfer
of magnetically encoded information is possible. Magnetic materials are
often used for information storage. Magnetically encoded information can,
in principle, also be transported without heat production by using the
magnetic properties of electrons, the electron spin. Combining the
lossless charge transport of superconductivity with the electronic
transport of magnetic information -- i.e. "spintronics" -- paves the way
for fundamentally novel functionalities for future energy-efficient
information technologies.
Speed of Processing
Bandwidth in computing is the
bit-rate of available or consumed
information capacity expressed typically in metric multiples of bits per
second. Variously, bandwidth may be characterized as network bandwidth,
data bandwidth, or digital bandwidth. This definition of bandwidth is in
contrast to the field of signal
processing, wireless communications, modem
data transmission, digital communications, and electronics, in which
bandwidth is used to refer to analog signal bandwidth measured in hertz,
meaning the frequency range between lowest and highest attainable
frequency while meeting a well-defined impairment level in signal power.
However, the actual bit rate that can be achieved depends not only on the
signal bandwidth, but also on the noise on the channel.
Chips.
Bit Rate is the
number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time.
Bandwidth in signal processing is the difference between the upper and
lower
frequencies in a
continuous set of frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz, and may
sometimes refer to passband bandwidth, sometimes to baseband bandwidth,
depending on context. Passband bandwidth is the difference between the
upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a band-pass filter, a
communication channel, or a signal spectrum. In the case of a low-pass
filter or baseband signal, the bandwidth is equal to its upper cutoff
frequency. Bandwidth in hertz is a central concept in many fields,
including electronics, information theory, digital communications, radio
communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy and is one of the
determinants of the capacity of a given communication channel. A key
characteristic of bandwidth is that any band of a given width can carry
the same amount of information, regardless of where that band is
located in the frequency spectrum. For example, a 3 kHz band can
carry a telephone conversation whether that band is at baseband (as in a
POTS telephone line) or modulated to some higher frequency.
Instructions Per Second is a measure of a computer's
processor speed. Many reported IPS values
have represented "peak" execution rates on artificial instruction
sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads typically lead to
significantly lower IPS values. Memory hierarchy also greatly affects
processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations.
Because of these problems, synthetic benchmarks such as Dhrystone are now
generally used to estimate
computer performance in commonly used applications, and raw IPS has
fallen into disuse.
Exascale Computing refers to computing systems capable of at least one
exaFLOPS,
or a
billion billion calculations per second.
Such capacity represents a thousandfold increase over the first petascale
computer that came into operation in 2008. (One exaflops is a thousand
petaflops or a quintillion, 1018, floating point operations per second.)
At a supercomputing conference in 2009, Computerworld projected exascale
implementation by 2018. Exascale computing would be considered as a
significant achievement in computer engineering, for it is believed to be
the order of processing power of the human brain at neural
level(functional might be lower). It is, for instance, the target power of
the Human Brain Project.
Researchers create first-of-its-kind composable storage platform for
high-performance computing. New framework pushes the limits of
high-performance computing. A first-of-its-kind framework called BespoKV,
performing at the exascale, or a billion billion calculations per second.
Spectral
Efficiency refers to the information rate that can be transmitted over
a given bandwidth in a specific
communication system.
It is a measure of how efficiently a limited frequency spectrum is
utilized by the physical layer protocol, and sometimes by the media access
control (the channel access protocol).
Signal Processing concerns the analysis, synthesis, and modification
of
signals, which are broadly
defined as functions conveying, "information about the behavior or
attributes of some phenomenon", such as sound, images, and biological
measurements. For example, signal processing techniques are used to
improve signal transmission fidelity, storage efficiency, and subjective
quality, and to emphasize or detect components of interest in a measured
signal.
Clock
Rate typically refers to the frequency at which a chip like a central
processing unit (CPU), one core of a
multi-core
processor, is running and is used as an indicator of the processor's
speed.
Processing Speed is a
cognitive ability that could
be defined as the time it takes a person to do a mental task. It is
related to the speed in which a person can understand and react to the
information they receive, whether it be visual (letters and numbers),
auditory (language), or movement.
Thinking Fast.
Fast is acting or
moving quickly or rapidly.
Being hurried and brief.
Quick is to
perform with little or no delay. Moving fast and lightly.
Apprehending and
responding with speed and
sensitivity.
Virtual PC
Virtual
Machine is an emulation of a computer system. Virtual machines are based on
computer architectures and provide functionality of a physical computer.
Their implementations may involve specialized hardware, software, or a
combination. There are different kinds of virtual machines, each with
different functions: System virtual machines (also termed full
virtualization VMs) provide a substitute for a real machine. They provide
functionality needed to execute entire
operating systems. A hypervisor
uses native execution to share and manage hardware,
allowing for multiple
environments which are
isolated from one another, yet exist on the same
physical machine. Modern hypervisors use hardware-assisted virtualization,
virtualization-specific hardware, primarily from the host CPUs. Process
virtual machines are designed to execute computer programs in a
platform-independent environment. Some virtual machines, such as QEMU, are
designed to also emulate different architectures and
allow execution of
software applications and
operating systems written for another CPU or
architecture. Operating-system-level virtualization allows the resources
of a computer to be partitioned via the kernel's support for multiple
isolated user space instances, which are usually called containers and may
look and feel like real machines to the end users.
Virtual-Box - Virtual machines
allow one or more 'guest' operating systems to run inside another on the
same PC. This is useful when you need access to multiple operating systems
to run different software that runs on a particular OS.
Privacy -
Safe Internet Use -
Tor Project
-
Dark Web
How to install a
Virtual Machine (youtube)
Virtual
Desktop is a term used with respect to
user interfaces, usually
within the WIMP paradigm, to describe ways in which the virtual space of a
computer's desktop environment is expanded beyond the physical limits of
the screen's display area through the use of software. This compensates
for a limited desktop area and can also be helpful in reducing clutter.
There are two major approaches to expanding the virtual area of the
screen. Switchable virtual desktops allow the user to make virtual copies
of their desktop view-port and switch between them, with open windows
existing on single virtual desktops. Another approach is to expand the
size of a single virtual screen beyond the size of the physical viewing
device. Typically, scrolling/panning a subsection of the virtual desktop
into view is used to navigate an oversized virtual desktop.
v2.0 Desktops allows you to organize your applications on up
to four virtual desktops.
Hardware Virtualization is the virtualization of computers as complete
hardware platforms, certain logical abstractions of their componentry, or
only the functionality required to run various operating systems.
Virtualization hides the physical characteristics of a computing platform
from the users, presenting instead another abstract computing platform. At
its origins, the software that controlled virtualization was called a
"control program", but the terms "hypervisor" or "virtual machine monitor"
became preferred over time.
Virtualization Software specifically emulators and hypervisors, are software
packages that emulate the whole physical computer machine, often providing
multiple virtual machines on one physical platform. The table below
compares basic information about platform virtualization hypervisors.
Hypervisor
is computer software, firmware, or hardware, that creates and runs virtual
machines. A computer on which a hypervisor runs one or more virtual
machines is called a host machine, and each virtual machine is called a
guest machine. The hypervisor presents the guest operating systems with a
virtual operating platform and manages the execution of the guest
operating systems. Multiple instances of a variety of operating systems
may share the virtualized hardware resources: for example, Linux, Windows,
and OS X instances can all run on a single physical x86 machine. This
contrasts with operating-system-level virtualization, where all instances
(usually called containers) must share a single kernel, though the guest
operating systems can differ in user space, such as different Linux
distributions with the same kernel.
Sandbox
is a security mechanism for separating running programs. It is often used
to execute untested or untrusted programs or code, possibly from
unverified or untrusted third parties, suppliers, users or websites,
without risking harm to the host machine or operating system. A sandbox
typically provides a tightly controlled set of resources for guest
programs to run in, such as scratch space on disk and memory. Network
access, the ability to inspect the host system or read from input devices
are usually disallowed or heavily restricted. In the sense of providing a
highly controlled environment, sandboxes may be seen as a specific example
of virtualization. Sandboxing is frequently used to test unverified
programs that may contain a virus or other malicious code, without
allowing the software to harm the host device.
Operating System Sandbox: Virtual PC (youtube) -
VM Ware -
Parallels.
Hyper-V
formerly known as Windows Server Virtualization, is a native hypervisor;
it can create virtual machines on x86-64 systems running Windows. Starting
with Windows 8, Hyper-V supersedes Windows Virtual PC as the hardware
virtualization component of the client editions of Windows NT. A server
computer running Hyper-V can be configured to expose individual virtual
machines to one or more networks.
VPN - Virtual Private Network
Virtual Private Network enables users to send and receive data across
shared or public
networks
as if their computing devices were directly connected to the private
network. Applications running across the
VPN may therefore benefit from
the functionality, security, and management of the private network.
Ultimate Guide to Finding the Best VPN
How does a VPN Work?
Hotspot Shield provides secure and
private access to a free and open
Internet.
Artificial Neural Network
Dedicated
Hosting Service is a type of Internet hosting in which the client leases an
entire server not shared with anyone else. This is more flexible than
shared hosting, as organizations have full control over the server(s),
including choice of operating system, hardware, etc. There is also another
level of dedicated or managed hosting commonly referred to as complex
managed hosting. Complex Managed Hosting applies to both physical
dedicated servers, Hybrid server and virtual servers, with many companies
choosing a hybrid (combination of physical and virtual) hosting solution.
Virtual Private Server is a virtual machine sold as a service by an
Internet hosting service. A VPS runs its own copy of an operating system,
and customers may have superuser-level access to that operating system
instance, so they can install almost any software that runs on that OS.
For many purposes they are functionally equivalent to a
dedicated physical
server, and being software-defined, are able to be much more easily
created and configured. They are priced much lower than an equivalent
physical server. However, as they share the underlying physical hardware
with other VPSs, performance may be lower, depending on the workload of
any other executing virtual machines.
Virtualization refers to the act of creating a
virtual rather than
actual version of something, including virtual computer hardware
platforms, storage devices, and computer network resources.
Virtual PC -
Virtual Reality
Windows
Virtual PC is a virtualization program for Microsoft Windows. In July 2006
Microsoft released the Windows version as a free product.
Remote - PC to PC
Remote is a place situated
far away from the main headquarters of an
operation or far from the main centers of the population. A place that
is situated
far from
where you are now.
Online Education -
Remote Learning
-
Home Work -
AI Teachers -
Virtual Training
-
Telemedicine -
Telemetry -
Video Conferencing
-
Travel Work
Remote Control is a component of an
electronic device used to
operate the device from a distance, usually
wirelessly. A TV remote control can
control certain TV functions like adjusting the volume or changing the
channel. But remember, you can change the channel, but you
can't control the content, so
it might be the
same shit on a
different channel.
Remote Desktop Software refers to a software or operating system
feature that allows a personal computer's desktop environment to be run
remotely on one system (usually a PC, but the concept applies equally to a
server), while being displayed on a separate client device. Remote desktop
applications have varying features. Some allow attaching to an existing
user's session (i.e., a running desktop) and "remote controlling", either
displaying the remote control session or blanking the screen. Taking over
a desktop remotely is a form of remote administration.
Remote Access
Server allows users to gain access to files and print services on
the LAN from a remote location. For example, a user who dials into a
network from home using an analog modem or an ISDN connection will dial
into a remote access server.
Remote Computer is a computer to which a user does not have physical
access, but which he or she can access or manipulate via some kind of
computer network.
Radio Control is the use of
control
signals transmitted by
radio to remotely
control
a device.
Telepresence -
Interfaces -
Remote Viewing
-
Back Door -
Displays
Tele-Operation indicates the
operation of a system or
machine at a distance.
Telecommand is a command sent to control a remote system or systems
not directly connected (e.g. via wires) to the place from which the
telecommand is sent.
Remote
Work or working from home is an employment arrangement in which
employees do not commute to a central place of work, such as an office
building, warehouse, or retail store. Instead, work can be accomplished in
the home, such as in a study, a small office/home office and/or a
telecentre. A company in which all workers perform remote work is known as
a distributed company. Remote work is also called work from anywhere,
telework, remote job, mobile work, and distance work.
Some
employers
spy on employees using
tracking tools such as video
feeds and
keystroke monitoring
software. 96% of Remote Companies Use
Employee Monitoring Software.
Remote work is not good for
people who
lack discipline or
have
bad time management skills,
or have no
purpose or
passion for the
work they do.
Working alone
or solo is a skill.
Hybrid Workplace is a model that mixes
in-office and remote work to offer flexibility and support to employees.
In a hybrid workplace, employees typically enjoy more autonomy and better
work-life balance – and are more engaged as a result.
Ghost
Work is work performed by a human, but believed by a customer to be
performed by an
automated process. Ghost
work focuses on task-based and content-driven work that can be funneled
through the Internet and application programming interfaces or APIs. This
work can include labelling, editing, moderating, and sorting information
or content. Ghost work can be performed
remotely
and on a contractual basis. It is an
invisible
workforce, scaled for those who desire full-time, part-time, or
ad-hoc work. Ghost work is differentiated from gig work or
temporary work because it
is task-based and uncredited. While
gig work involves a general
platform, ghost work emphasizes the software or algorithm aspect of
assisting machines to automate further. Through labelling content, ghost
workers teach the machine to learn. low wages, no benefits and isolation
from colleagues.
Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which employees
do not commute
or travel (e.g. by bus or car) to a central place of work, such as an
office building, warehouse, or store. Teleworkers in the 21st century
often use mobile
telecommunications
technology such as Wi-Fi-equipped laptop or tablet computers and
smartphones to work from coffee shops; others may use a desktop computer
and a
landline phone at their home.
Honest Work -
Temporary Work -
Cooperatives -
Skill Sharing
Cottage Industry
is a business or manufacturing activity carried on in a person's home.
Solitude (introverts).
Home Office is a room in a person's house
where he or she does office work. A home office is a designated space in a
person's residence used for official business purposes and provides a
place to
work from
home.
Teaching via Video Conference -
Remote IT
Services -
Remote PC to PC Services
-
Log Me In -
Team Viewer -
Go to Assist -
Pogo Plug -
Dyn DNS -
Tight VNC -
Web Conferencing
-
Tutoring
Virtual Assistant is generally
self-employed and provides professional
administrative, technical, or creative or
social assistance to clients
remotely from a home office. Because virtual assistants are
independent
contractors rather than
employees, clients are not responsible for any
employee-related taxes, insurance or benefits, except in the context that
those indirect expenses are included in the VA's fees. Clients also avoid
the logistical problem of providing extra office space, equipment or
supplies. Clients pay for 100% productive work, and can work with Virtual
Assistants, individually, or in multi-VA firms to meet their exact needs.
Virtual Assistants usually
work for other small businesses. but can also
support busy executives. It is estimated that there are as few as
5,000-10,000 or as many as 25,000 virtual assistants worldwide. The
profession is growing in centralized economies with "
fly-in fly-out" staffing practices.
Working while Traveling
Remote Job is one that is
done away from the office in a remote
location.
Remote workers can be more productive than their office-bound
counterparts.
Synchronous
Communication -
Asynchronous Communication.
Visas -
Immigration -
Work Life Balance -
Remote Work
Digital Nomad are a type of people who use
telecommunications
technologies to earn a living and, more generally, conduct their life in a
nomadic manner. Such
workers often work
remotely from foreign countries,
coffee shops, public libraries, co-working spaces, or recreational
vehicles. This is often accomplished through the use of devices that
have
wireless Internet capabilities such as smartphones or mobile hotspots.
Successful digital
nomads typically have a financial cushion. Other names
used are Nomadic Computer Programmer, Online Virtual Assistant,
Professional Consultant and Geographical Free Agent.
Mobile Homes.
Global Nomad is a person who is living a
mobile and international
lifestyle. Global nomads aim to live location-
independently, seeking
detachment from particular geographical locations and the idea of
territorial belonging.
Work on the Road is traveling from place to
place while working away from one's home or office.
Working Vacation or workcation is the
combination of holiday time with
remote work.
Business and Leisure is the merging of
business and
leisure travel
or to do something enjoyable that is related to one's work.
Working Holiday allows someone to visit a
country for longer than the average tourist with the opportunity to take
on
short-term jobs to save
money or at least help fund the trip. Many people seek
short-term jobs in multiple
regions as a way to explore that country in-depth.
Work & Travel programs enable you to earn money and experience
daily life for part of your program as you travel and explore the country.
Business Tourism can be divided into primary and secondary activities.
Primary ones are business (work)-related, and included activities such as
consultancy, inspections, and attending meetings. Secondary ones are
related to tourism (
leisure) and include activities such as dining out,
recreation, shopping, sightseeing, meeting others for
leisure activities,
and so on. While the primary ones tend to be seen as more important, the
secondary ones are nonetheless often described as "substantial".
Business Travel is travel undertaken for
work or business purposes, as
opposed to other types of travel, such as for leisure purposes or
regularly commuting between one's home and workplace. According to a
survey 88% small business owners enjoy business travel. Workers who travel
away from the workplace on business can be considered "
traveling
employees," even if the travel is local and of limited duration.
Portable is something that is easily or
conveniently transported.
Transportation.
Traveling Nurse or travel nurse is a nurse
who gets by hired healthcare staffing companies to
work temporary
contracts for hospitals and other healthcare providers at different
locations around the country away from the nurse’s
legal tax-home. Hired by a healthcare
staffing company. Works
temporary contracts. Nurses complete the contracts
at hospitals and other healthcare providers. The nurse moves around the
country periodically for the work.
Common
careers involving business travel include: Salespeople, Sales
engineers, Executives, Field engineers, Project managers, Trainers,
Consultants, An au pair is a professional live-in babysitter or nanny.
Peace Corps / NGO Work. Additionally, it is common to see doctors, nurses,
and other medical professionals flying for work. Often lawyers,
politicians, athletes, clergy, military, academics, and journalists
conduct business travel on a regular basis. Travel Blogging, including
food bloggers, mommy bloggers, fashion bloggers, and lifestyle bloggers.
Videography / Vlogging / YouTube. Yacht Sailing Jobs. Freelance Travel
Photographer. Bartending Jobs Abroad. Musician / Street Performer. A Local
Tour Guide. Traveling Yoga Instructor. Freelance Travel Writer. Freelance
Massage Therapist. Website & Graphic Design. Work On A Cruise Ship.
Traveling Festival Work. Scuba Diving Instructor. A Flight Attendant.
Foreign Service Travel Jobs. Travel Agent. Teach English Abroad or Teach
English Online. Online Translation Jobs.
Backpacker Worker and vagabonds do
work that I’ll call
“alternative” travel jobs. The type of work that may not require a
computer or a college degree, but has a more hands-on approach. Think
musicians, artists, or manual labor. Pay could be under the table.
Migrant Worker is a person who migrates within a home country or
outside it to pursue work. Migrant workers usually do not have the
intention to stay permanently in the country or region in which they work.
Seasonal Travel Jobs. Construction, school teachers, commercial fishing,
oil workers, electricians, ski resort staff, etc. These jobs depend on
what skills you currently possess or are willing to learn.
Distributed Workforce is a
workforce that reaches beyond the
restrictions of a traditional office environment. A
distributed workforce
is d
ispersed geographically over a wide area – domestically or
internationally. By installing key technologies, distributed companies
enable
employees located anywhere to access all of the company’s resources
and software such as applications, data and e-mail without working within
the confines of a physical company-operated facility. This is not a
virtual business, where
employees are distributed but remain primarily
unconnected. A company with a distributed workforce connects its
employees using a
networking infrastructure
that makes it easy for team members across the world to work together.
Using a shared software approach called SaaS, or software as a service,
workers and teams can share files securely as well as access the company’s
databases, file sharing, telecommunications/unified communications,
Customer relationship management (CRM),
video teleconferencing,
human resources, IT service management, accounting, IT security, web
analytics, web content management, e-mail, calendars and much more.
Some things you can't do from a distance,
you have to be one site, physically and mentally. Working remotely is very
convenient. But sometimes you have to be present in the place where the
work is being done.
Boots on the ground is
not just a military thing, it is a life thing. Salespeople are the ones
manning booths at trade shows, driving from site to site visiting
customers, and calling their way through lists of phone numbers.
Putting-Out System is a means of
subcontracting work.
Historically, it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic
system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to
subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in
their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen. It was used in
the English and American textile industries, in shoemaking, lock-making
trades, and making parts for small firearms from the Industrial Revolution
until the mid-19th century. After the invention of the sewing machine in
1846, the system lingered on for the making of ready-made men's clothing.
The domestic system was suited to pre-urban times because workers did not
have to travel from home to work, which was quite impracticable due to the
state of roads and footpaths, and members of the household spent many
hours in farm or household tasks. Early factory owners sometimes had to
build dormitories to house workers, especially girls and women.
Putting-out workers had some flexibility to balance farm and household
chores with the putting-out work, this being especially important in
winter. The development of this trend is often considered to be a form of
proto-industrialization, and remained prominent until the Industrial
Revolution of the 19th century. At that point, it underwent name and
geographical changes. However, bar some technological advancements, the
putting-out system has not changed in essential practice. Contemporary
examples can be found in China, India, and South America, and are not
limited to the textiles industry.
Crowdsourcing -
Part Time Work
-
Flextime Expatriate is a
person residing in a country other than their native country.
Inside Contracting is the practice of hiring contractors who work
inside the proprietor's factory. It replaced the putting out system, where
contractors worked in their own facilities.
Open Source Software
Open-Source Software is computer software with its source code made
available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights
to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any
purpose.
Open Source Software may be developed in a collaborative public
manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a
prominent example of open collaboration.
Open Source Education.
Open-Source Hardware consists of physical artifacts of technology
designed and offered by the open-design movement. Both free and
open-source software (FOSS) and open-source hardware are created by this
open-source culture movement and apply a like concept to a variety of
components. It is sometimes, thus, referred to as FOSH (free and
open-source hardware). The term usually means that information about the
hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it – coupling it
closely to the maker movement. Hardware design (i.e. mechanical drawings,
schematics, bills of material, PCB layout data, HDL source code and
integrated circuit layout data), in addition to the software that drives
the hardware, are all released under free/libre terms. The original sharer
gains feedback and potentially improvements on the design from the FOSH
community. There is now significant evidence that such sharing can drive a
high return on investment for the scientific community. Since the rise of
reconfigurable programmable logic devices, sharing of logic designs has
been a form of open-source hardware. Instead of the schematics, hardware
description language (HDL) code is shared. HDL descriptions are commonly
used to set up system-on-a-chip systems either in field-programmable gate
arrays (FPGA) or directly in application-specific integrated circuit
(ASIC) designs. HDL modules, when distributed, are called semiconductor
intellectual property cores, also known as IP cores. Open-source hardware
also helps alleviate the issue of proprietary device drivers for the free
and open-source software community, however, it is not a pre-requisite for
it, and should not be confused with the concept of open documentation for
proprietary hardware, which is already sufficient for writing FLOSS device
drivers and complete operating systems. The difference between the two
concepts is that OSH includes both the instructions on how to replicate
the hardware itself as well as the information on communication protocols
that the software (usually in the form of device drivers) must use in
order to communicate with the hardware (often called register
documentation, or open documentation for hardware), whereas
open-source-friendly proprietary hardware would only include the latter
without including the former.
Open Source
is a decentralized development model that encourages open collaboration. A
main principle of open-source software development is peer production,
with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely
available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a
response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for
projects such as in open-source appropriate technologies, and open-source
drug discovery.
Open Source Initiative -
Open Source.
Business
Software Tools and Apps
Asterisk
open source framework for building communications applications.
Alfresco
software built on open standards.
Open-Source Electronics
Arduino -
Raspberry Pi
Mmassimo Banzi (video)
Arduino 3D
Printer (youtube)
Science Kits
Freeware Files
Computer Rentals
Rent Solutions
Vernon Computer
Source
Smart Source
RentalsGoogle
Cromebook
Miles
Technologies Technology Solutions.
Maximum PC
Knowledge Management
-
Artificial Intelligence
-
Science
-
Ideas
-
Innovation
Word Processors
Word
Processor is a device or
computer program that
provides for input, editing, formatting and output of text, often with
some additional features. Early word processors were stand-alone devices
dedicated to the function, but current word processors are word processor
programs running on general purpose computers.
Open Office
SuiteLibre Office
Abi Source
Note Tab text-processing and HTML
editor.
Word
Processors List (PDF)
Google Docs
(writely)
Google
Business Tools and Apps
Zoho
Photo Editing SoftwareFree Software
Scraper Wiki
getting data from the web, spreadsheets, PDFs.
Comet Docs
Convert, Store and Share your documents.
Final Draft software is a
screenwriting software for
Writing and
formatting screenplays to
standards
set by theater, television and film industries. The program can also be
used to write documents such as stageplays, outlines, treatments, query
letters, novels, graphic novels, manuscripts, and basic text documents.
Writing Tips.
Computer Courses
W3 Schools
Webmaster Tutorials
Technology Terms
Creator Academy by Google
J Learning
Lynda
Compucert
Learning Tree
IT Training
Building a Search Engine
Tech Terms
Online Schools
-
Learn to Code
Computer Maintenance
Computer Hope
How to Geek
Stack Overflow
PC
Mag
Data Doctors
Repairs 4 Laptop
Maintain Your Computer
(wiki how)
PC User
Maintain PC (ehow)
Open Source Ultra
DefragerData Recovery
Software
Dmoz
Computers Websites
Inter-Hacktive
Hackerspace
Technology Tools
Math
Games
Information Management
Computer History
Laptops for Learning
Flash Drive Knowledge
Engineering
Design
Technology News
Remote Computer Assistance
Self-Help Computer Resources
Thanks to the millions of people sharing their knowledge and experiences
online, you can pretty much learn anything you want on your own. So over
the years I have collected some great resources that come in handy.
Sharing is awesome!
Information Sources.
Surfing the Internet TipsFirst a Little Warning:
When visiting other websites be
very careful what you click on because some software downloads are very
dangerous to your computer, so be absolutely sure what you are downloading. Read
the ".exe" file name. Search the internet for more info, or to verify '.exe'
executable files. It's a good idea to always get a second opinion on what
software you might need.
Free Virus Protection
Internet Browsers
Internet Safety
Info
Internet
Connections
Computer Quick Fix Tips
Make sure that your
Computer
System
Restore is on. This can sometimes be used to fix a bad
computer virus or malfunction. It's a good idea to do a System Restore and a
Virus Scan in the
Safe Mode (During Computer Restart hit the F8 Key and then follow
the instructions) (F2 is Setup and F12 is the Boot Menu)
Warning: System Restore that is found under
Start/Programs/Accessories/System Tools is not the same as PC Restore, Factory
Settings or Image Restore, which will delete all your personal files and
software from the PC. If you don't have OS Setup Disk that came with your PC
then sometimes the PC will have a Factory Settings copy installed. This you need
to do while your PC is rebooting. Press ' Ctrl ' then press F11 and then
release both at the same time. You should see something like Symantec Ghost
where you will be prompted to reinstall Factory Settings. This will delete all
your personal files and software from the PC so please back up first.
Always Have your Operating System Restore Disk or
Recovery
Disc handy because not all computer problems can be fixed. You also need
your Drivers and Applications Disks too. Always backup your most important
computer files because reinstalling the operating system will clear your
data.
Kingston DataTraveler 200 - 128 GB USB 2.0 Flash Drive DT200/128GB (Black)
Western Digital 2 TB USB 2.0 Desktop External Hard Drive
Sending Large Files
Bit Torrent Protocol (wiki)
Lime Wire
P2P
Send Large
Files
Zip Files
Stuffit File
Compression
File-Zilla
Dropbox
File
Sharing for Professionals
We
Transfer
You can try some of
these free programs to help keep your computer safe: (might be outdated)
Lava Soft Ad-Ware
Spybot
Search & Destroy
CCleaner
Malwarebytes
Hijack This
Spyware Blaster
Download.com has the
software above but
be very careful not to click on the wrong download item.
Please Verify the correct ".exe file." name.
Free Software ?As the saying goes "
Nothing is Free." Free software
sometimes comes loaded with other software programs that you don't need. So
always check or uncheck the appropriate boxes, and read everything carefully.
But even then, they might sneak unwanted programs
by you, so you will have to remove those programs manually. With the
internet, dangers are always lurking around the corner, so please be careful, be
aware and educate yourself. When our computer systems and the internet are
running smoothly the beauty of this machine becomes very evident. This is the
largest collaboration of people in human history. With so many contributors from
all over the world, we now have more knowledge and information at our fingertips
then ever before, our potential is limitless.
Open
Source -
Operating Systems
Software
Repository is a storage location from which software packages may be
retrieved and installed on a computer.
Free
Software Info (wiki) -
Free Software Foundation
-
General Public License -
Free BSD -
Jolla (wiki)
-
Hadoop Apache -
Open Mind -
Software Geek -
Word and Text Processing Software
New Computers - Sadly new PC's are loaded with a lot of bogus software and programs
that you don't need. Removing them can be a challenge, but it's absolutely
necessary if you want your PC to run smoothly without all those annoying
distractions that slow your PC down.
Lojack For Laptops (amazon)
Tired and Disgusted with Windows 8
dysfunctional Operating System Interface, Download
Classic Shell to make
your computer like XP, and find things again, or you can just
update your windows 8.0 to windows 8.1,, because 8.1 is definitely better
then 8.0, but still not perfect yet.
Oasis Websoft
advanced software by providing superior solutions for web applications, web
sites and enterprise software. We are committed to building infrastructure that
will ensure that the West African sub-region is not left behind in the
continuous evolution of information technology.
Fawn fast, scalable, and
energy-efficient cluster architecture for data-intensive computing.
BlueStacks is currently the best way to run Android apps on Windows. It
doesn’t replace your entire operating system. Instead, it runs Android apps
within a window on your Windows desktop. This allows you to use Android apps
just like any other program.
Utility Software is system software designed to help analyze,
configure, optimize or maintain a computer. Utility software, along with
operating system software, is a type of system software used to support
the computer infrastructure, distinguishing it from application software
which is aimed at directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.
Service-Oriented Architecture is an architectural pattern in computer
software design in which application components provide services to other
components via a communications protocol, typically over a network. The
principles of service-orientation are independent of any vendor, product
or technology. A service is a self-contained unit of functionality, such
as retrieving an online bank statement. By that definition, a service is
an operation that may be discretely invoked. However, in the Web Services
Description Language (WSDL), a service is an interface definition that may
list several discrete services/operations. And elsewhere, the term service
is used for a component that is encapsulated behind an interface. This
widespread ambiguity is reflected in what follows. Services can be
combined to provide the functionality of a large software application. SOA
makes it easier for software components on computers connected over a
network to cooperate. Every computer can run any number of services,
and each service is built in a way that ensures that the service can
exchange information with any other service in the network without human
interaction and without the need to make changes to the underlying program
itself. A paradigm for organizing and utilizing distributed capabilities
that may be under the control of different ownership domains. It provides
a uniform means to offer, discover, interact with and use capabilities to
produce desired effects consistent with measurable preconditions and expectations.
Integrated Circuits - IC's
The First
Integrated Circuit on the right (September 12th, 1958)
And now almost 60 years later...
Integrated Circuit is a set of
electronic
circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of
semiconductor material, normally silicon. The integration of
large numbers of tiny
transistors into a small chip resulted in
circuits that are orders of magnitude smaller, cheaper, and
faster than those constructed of discrete
electronic components.
Integrated Circuit Design (wiki).
CMOS or Complementary
metal–oxide–semiconductor, is a technology for constructing integrated
circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers,
static RAM, and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used
for several analog circuits such as
image sensors
(CMOS sensor), data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for
many types of communication.
Die in the context of integrated circuits is a small block of
semiconducting material, on which a given functional circuit is
fabricated. Typically, integrated circuits are produced in large batches
on a single wafer of electronic-grade silicon (EGS) or other
semiconductor
(such as GaAs) through processes such as photolithography. The wafer is
cut (“diced”) into many pieces, each containing one copy of the circuit.
Each of these pieces is called a die.
Integrated Circuit Layout is the representation of an integrated
circuit in terms of planar geometric shapes which correspond to the
patterns of metal, oxide, or semiconductor layers that make up the
components of the integrated circuit. When using a standard process—where
the interaction of the many chemical, thermal, and photographic variables
is known and carefully controlled—the behaviour of the final integrated
circuit depends largely on the
positions and
interconnections of the geometric shapes. Using a computer-aided
layout tool, the layout engineer—or layout technician—places and connects
all of the components that make up the chip such that they meet certain
criteria—typically: performance, size, density, and manufacturability.
This practice is often subdivided between two primary layout disciplines:
Analog and digital. The generated layout must pass a series of checks in a
process known as physical verification. The most common checks in this
verification process are design rule checking (DRC), layout versus
schematic (LVS), parasitic extraction, antenna rule checking, and
electrical rule checking (ERC). When all verification is complete, the
data is translated into an industry-standard format, typically GDSII, and
sent to a semiconductor foundry. The process of sending this data to the
foundry is called tapeout because the data used to be shipped out on a
magnetic tape. The foundry
converts the data into another format and uses
it to generate the photomasks used in a photolithographic process of
semiconductor device fabrication. In the earlier, simpler, days of IC
design, layout was done by hand using opaque tapes and films, much like
the early days of printed circuit board (PCB) design. Modern IC layout is
done with the aid of IC layout editor software, mostly automatically using
EDA tools, including place and route tools or schematic-driven layout
tools. The manual operation of choosing and positioning the geometric
shapes is informally known as "polygon pushing".
Hardware.
Computer Chip Close-up Macro Photo on right
Newly-discovered semiconductor dynamics may help improve energy efficiency.
The most common material for
semiconductors is
silicon, which is mined from Earth and then refined and purified. But pure
Silicon
doesn't conduct electricity, so the material is purposely and precisely
adulterated by the addition of other substances known as
Dopants.
Boron and phosphorus ions are common dopants added to silicon-based
semiconductors that allow them to conduct electricity. But the amount of
dopant added to a semiconductor matters -- too little dopant and the
semiconductor won't be able to conduct electricity. Too much dopant and
the semiconductor becomes more like a
non-conductive insulator.
World's first 1,000-Processor Chip. A microchip containing
1,000 independent programmable processors has been designed. The
energy-efficient 'KiloCore' chip has a maximum computation rate
of 1.78 trillion instructions per second and contains 621
million transistors.
The highest clock-rate processor ever
designed.
Nanoelectronics potentially make microprocessor chips work 1,000 times
faster. While most advanced electronic devices are powered by
photonics -- which
involves the use of photons to transmit information -- photonic elements
are usually large in size and this greatly limits their use in many
advanced
nanoelectronics systems.
Plasmons,
which are waves of
electrons that move
along the surface of a metal after it is struck by photons, holds great
promise for disruptive technologies in nanoelectronics. They are
comparable to
photons in terms of speed
(they also travel with the speed of light), and they are much smaller.
This unique property of plasmons makes them ideal for integration with
nanoelectronics. Innovative transducer can directly convert electrical
signals into plasmonic signals, and vice versa, in a single step. By
bridging plasmonics and nanoscale electronics, we can potentially make
chips run faster and reduce power losses. Our plasmonic-electronic
transducer is about 10,000 times smaller than optical elements. We believe
it can be readily integrated into existing technologies and can
potentially be used in a wide range of applications in the future.
Method identified to double computer processing speeds. Scientists
introduce what they call 'simultaneous and heterogeneous multithreading'
or SHMT. This system doubles computer processing speeds with existing
hardware by simultaneously using graphics processing units (GPUs),
hardware accelerators for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning (ML), or digital signal processing units to process information.
New chip opens door to AI computing at light speed. Engineers have
developed a new chip that uses light waves, rather than electricity, to
perform the complex math essential to training AI. The chip has the
potential to radically accelerate the processing speed of computers while
also reducing their energy consumption
5
Nanometer defines the 5 nanometer node as the technology node
following the 7 nm node. Single transistor 7 nm scale devices were first
produced by researchers in the early 2000s, and in 2003 NEC produced a 5
nm transistor. On June 5 2017, IBM revealed that they had created 5 nm
silicon chips, using silicon nanosheets in a Gate All Around configuration
(GAAFET), a break from the usual FinFET design.
Toward ever-more powerful microchips and supercomputers. A look at the
process to extend 'Moore's law,' which has doubled the number of
transistors that can be packed on a microchip roughly every two years, and
develop new ways to produce more capable, efficient, and cost-effective
chips. The PPPL scientists modeled what is called "atomic layer etching"
(ALE), an increasingly critical fabrication step that aims to remove
single atomic layers from a surface at a time. This process can be used to
etch complex three-dimensional structures with critical dimensions that
are thousands of times thinner than a human hair into a film on a silicon
wafer.
Physicists show how frequencies can easily be multiplied without special
circuitry. A new discovery by
physicists
could make certain components in computers and smartphones obsolete. The
team has succeeded in directly converting frequencies to higher ranges in
a common magnetic material without the need for additional components.
Frequency multiplication is a fundamental process in modern electronics.
Non-linear electronic circuits are typically used to generate the
high-frequency gigahertz signals needed to operate today's devices. The
team at MLU has now found a way to do this within a magnetic material
without the electronic components that are usually used for this. Instead,
the magnetization is excited by a low-frequency megahertz source. Using
the newly discovered effect, the source generates several frequency
components, each of which is a multiple of the excitation frequency. These
cover a range of six octaves and reach up to several gigahertz. This is
like hitting the lowest note on a piano while also hearing the
corresponding harmonic tones of the higher octaves.
Semiconductor Device Fabrication is the process
used to create the
integrated circuits that are present in everyday electrical and electronic
devices. It is a multiple-step sequence of photo lithographic and chemical
processing steps during which electronic circuits are gradually created on
a wafer made of pure semiconducting material. Silicon is almost always
used, but various compound semiconductors are used for specialized
applications. The entire manufacturing process, from start to packaged
chips ready for shipment, takes six to eight weeks and is performed in
highly specialized facilities referred to as fabs. In more advanced
semiconductor devices such as modern nodes say as of 2017 regarding 14/10/7nm
device fabrication can take up to 15 weeks with 11-13 weeks being the
industry average.
Atomically Thin Transistors that is Two-Dimensional -
Ultrathin Transistors for faster computer chips. Two-dimensional
materials with insulator made of
calcium fluoride.
Berkeley Lab-led research breaks major barrier with the
Smallest Transistor Ever by creating gate only 1 nanometer
long. High-end 20-nanometer-gate transistors now on the market.
Molybdenum Disulfide (wiki).
Winged microchip is smallest-ever human-made flying structure. The
size of a grain of sand, dispersed microfliers could
monitor air pollution,
airborne disease and environmental contamination. By studying the
aerodynamics of wind-dispersed seeds, researcher developed a flying
microchip (or 'microflier') that catches the wind and passively flies
through the air. Packed with ultra-miniaturized technology, including
sensors and wireless communication capabilities, these microfliers could
be used to monitor air pollution, airborne disease and more.
Atomically
thin, transition metal dichalcogenides could increase computer speed,
memory by a million times. Transition
metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) possess optical properties that could be
used to make computers run a million times faster and store information a
million times more energy-efficiently, according to a new study.
Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Monolayers (wiki).
Atom-thin transistor uses half the voltage of common semiconductors,
boosts current density. The two-dimensional structure could by key for
quantum computing, extending Moore's Law. Researchers report a new,
two-dimensional transistor made of graphene and molybdenum disulfide that
needs less voltage and can handle more current than today's
semiconductors.
Paper-thin gallium oxide transistor handles more than 8,000 volts.
Faster and more efficient information transfer. Physicists use
antiferromagnetic rust to carry information over long distances at room
temperature.
Chip-Sized, High-Speed Terahertz Modulator raises possibility of
Faster Data Transmission.
Discovery of new nanowire assembly process could enable more powerful
computer chips. Researchers have developed a technique to precisely
manipulate and place nanowires with sub-micron accuracy. This discovery
could accelerate the development of even smaller and more powerful
computer chips. The innovative method uses novel tools, including
ultra-thin filaments of
polyethylene terephthalate or PET with tapered nanoscale tips that are
used to pick up individual
nanowires.
Quantum computing engineers set new standard in silicon chip performance.
Engineers have substantially extended the time that their quantum
computing processors can hold information by more than 100 times compared
to previous results. Now a team of researchers at UNSW Sydney has broken
new ground in proving that '
spin qubits' --
properties of electrons representing the basic units of information in
quantum computers -- can hold information for up to
two milliseconds. Known as 'coherence time', the duration of time that
qubits can be manipulated in increasingly complicated calculations, the
achievement is 100 times longer than previous benchmarks in the same
quantum processor.
Computers Made of Genetic Material? HZDR researchers conduct
electricity using DNA-based nanowires.
Semiconductor-free microelectronics are now possible, thanks to
metamaterials.
Metamaterial is a material engineered to have a property
that is
not found in nature.
Strain Engineering refers to a general strategy employed in
semiconductor manufacturing to enhance device performance. Performance
benefits are achieved by modulating strain, as one example, in the
transistor channel, which enhances electron mobility (or hole mobility)
and thereby conductivity through the channel. Another example are
semiconductor photocatalysts strain-engineered for more effective use of
sunlight.
Fast-track strain engineering for speedy biomanufacturing. Using
engineered microbes as microscopic factories has given the world steady
sources of life-saving drugs, revolutionized the food industry, and
allowed us to make sustainable versions of valuable chemicals previously
made from petroleum. But behind each biomanufactured product on the market
today is the investment of years of work and many millions of dollars in
research and development funding. Scientists want to help the burgeoning
industry reach new heights by accelerating and streamlining the process of
engineering microbes to produce important compounds with commercial-ready
efficiency.
Semiconductor-free microelectronics (youtube)
Superconducting nanowire memory cell, miniaturized technology.
Researchers trap atoms, forcing them to serve as photonic transistors.
This groundbreaking research demonstrates a potential for quantum networks
based on cold-atom integrated nanophotonic circuits. Researchers at Purdue
University have trapped alkali atoms (cesium) on an integrated photonic
circuit, which behaves like a transistor for photons (the smallest energy
unit of light) similar to electronic transistors. These trapped atoms
demonstrate the potential to build a quantum network based on cold-atom
integrated nanophotonic circuits. The team, led by Chen-Lung Hung,
associate professor of physics and astronomy at the Purdue University
College of Science, published their discovery in the American Physical
Society's Physical Review X.
Breakthrough in Circuit Design Makes Electronics More Resistant to Damage
and Defects.
Researchers resurrect and improve a technique for detecting transistor
defects. A traditional method gets a new lease on life and may provide
a new standard for measuring electric current. Researchers have revived
and improved a once-reliable technique to identify and count defects in
transistors, the building blocks of modern electronic devices such as
smartphones and computers.
2D materials that could make devices faster, smaller, and
efficient nanomaterials that are only a few
atoms in
thickness.
Polaritons in layered two-dimensional materials.
Researchers pave the way for Ionotronic Nanodevices.
Discovery helps develop new kinds of electrically switchable
memories. Ionotronic devices rely on charge effects based on
ions, instead of electrons or in
addition to
electrons.
Discovery
of a topological semimetal phase coexisting with ferromagnetic behavior in
Sr1-yMnSb2 (y~0.08). New magnet displays electronic charge carriers
that have almost no mass. The magnetism brings with it an important
symmetry breaking property --
time
reversal symmetry, or TRS, breaking where the ability to run time
backward would no longer return the system back to its starting
conditions. The combination of relativistic electron behavior, which is
the cause of much reduced charge carrier mass, and TRS breaking has been
predicted to cause even more unusual behavior, the much sought after
magnetic Weyl semimetal phase.
Topological Transistors and beyond-CMOS electronics. First time that
the topological state in a topological insulator has been switched on and
off using an electric field. Researchers proved this is possible at room
temperature, which is necessary for any viable replacement to CMOS
technology in everyday applications. Ultra-low energy electronics such as
topological transistors would allow computing to continue to grow, without
being limited by available energy as we near the end of achievable
improvements in traditional, silicon-based electronics (a phenomenon known
as the end of Moore's Law). To be a viable alternative to current,
silicon-based technology (CMOS), topological transistors must: operate at
room temperature (without the need for expensive supercooling), 'switch'
between conducting (1) and non-conducting (0), and switch extremely
rapidly, by application of an electric field. Information and
communication technology (ICT). The energy burnt in computation accounts
for 8% of global electricity use. ICT energy use is doubling every decade.
ICT contributes as much to climate change as the aviation industry.
Moore's Law, which has kept ICT energy in check for 50 years, will end in
the next decade.
Engineers build LEGO-like artificial intelligence chip. The new design
is stackable and reconfigurable, for swapping out and building on existing
sensors and neural network processors. Engineers built a new
artificial intelligence chip, with a view
toward sustainable, modular electronics. The chip can be reconfigured,
with layers that can be swapped out or stacked on, such as to add new
sensors or updated processors.
Physicists develop Printable Organic Transistors. Scientists have come
a step closer to the vision of a broad application of flexible, printable
electronics. The team has succeeded in developing powerful vertical
organic transistors with two independent control electrodes.
Print complete Large Scale Integrated Circuits with more than 100 organic
electrochemical transistors. We can now place more than 1000 organic
electrochemical transistors on an A4-sized plastic substrate, and can
connect them in different ways to create different types of printed
integrated circuits.
Carbon Nanotube Transistors Outperform Silicon, for first time.
Engineers use Graphene as a “copy machine” to produce cheaper
Semiconductor Wafers. In 2016, annual global semiconductor sales
reached their highest-ever point, at $339 billion worldwide. In that same
year, the semiconductor industry spent about $7.2 billion worldwide on
wafers that serve as the substrates for microelectronics components, which
can be turned into transistors, light-emitting diodes, and other
electronic and photonic devices. MIT engineers may vastly reduce the
overall cost of wafer technology and enable devices made from more exotic,
higher-performing semiconductor materials than conventional silicon. Uses
graphene -- single-atom-thin sheets of graphite -- as a sort of "copy
machine" to transfer intricate crystalline patterns from an underlying
semiconductor wafer to a top layer of identical material.
Reconfigurable Chaos-Based Microchips Offer Possible Solution to
Moore’s Law. Nonlinear, chaos-based integrated circuits that
enable computer chips to perform multiple functions with fewer
transistors. The transistor circuit can be programmed to
implement different instructions by morphing between different
operations and functions. The potential of 100 morphable
nonlinear chaos-based circuits doing work equivalent to 100
thousand circuits, or of 100 million transistors doing work
equivalent to three billion transistors holds promise for
extending Moore’s law.
Transistors can now both Process and Store information. Building a
functional transistor integrated with ferroelectric RAM.
Advancement in thermoelectricity could light up the Internet of Things.
Researchers have improved the efficiency of heat-to-electricity conversion
in gallium arsenide semiconductor microstructures. By judicious spatial
alignment of electrons within a two-dimensional electron gas system with
multiple subbands, one can substantially enhance the power factor compared
with previous iterations of analogous systems. This work is an important
advance in modern thermoelectric technology and will benefit the global
integration of the Internet of Things. We demonstrate a two-dimensional
electron gas (2DEG) system with multiple subbands that uses gallium
arsenide. The system is different from conventional methods of
thermoelectric conversion.
Organic electronics lead to new ways to sense light. Researchers from
Osaka University have developed a soft, flexible, and wireless optical
sensor based on carbon nanotubes and organic transistors formed on
ultra-thin polymer film for new imaging applications and nondestructive
analysis methods.
Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography is a
next-generation lithography technology using a range of extreme
ultraviolet wavelengths, roughly spanning a 2% FWHM bandwidth about
13.5 nm. In August 2019, Samsung announced the use of EUV for its own 7nm Exynos 9825 chip. However, yield issues have been a concern. ASML, the
sole EUV tool supplier, reported in June 2019 that pellicles required for
critical layers still required improvements. In September 2019, Huawei
announced a 5G version of its Kirin 990 chip that was made in a TSMC 7nm
process with EUV, as well as a non-5G version that was made in a
conventional TSMC 7nm process; the first phone to use the Kirin 990 5G
chip will ship starting 1st of November 2019; in October, TSMC announced
products were shipping. TSMC had indicated in the first quarter of 2019
that EUV-generated N7+ revenue would amount to no more than 1 billion TWD
(32 million USD) in 2019. For 2020, more focus is being placed on more
extensive use of EUV for "5nm" or "N5," although cost per transistor is
still a concern. While EUV has entered its production phase, the volume is
supported by fewer than 50 systems worldwide; by comparison, as of 2013,
over 200 Deep Ultraviolet Lithography (DUV) immersion systems were already
deployed.
ASML.
Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the
immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic
limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796
by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a cheap method of
publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or
artwork onto paper or other suitable material.
Photolithography
also called optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in
microfabrication to pattern parts of a thin film or the bulk of a
substrate (also called a wafer). It uses light to transfer a geometric
pattern from a
photomask (also called an optical mask) to a photosensitive (that is,
light-sensitive) chemical photoresist on the substrate. A series of
chemical treatments then either etches the exposure pattern into the
material or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern
upon the material underneath the photoresist. In complex integrated
circuits, a CMOS wafer may go through the photolithographic cycle as many
as 50 times. Photolithography shares some fundamental principles with
photography in that the pattern in the photoresist etching is created by
exposing it to light, either directly (without using a mask) or with a
projected image using a photomask. This procedure is comparable to a high
precision version of the method used to make printed circuit boards.
Subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than
with lithographic printing. This method can create extremely small
patterns, down to a few tens of nanometers in size. It provides precise
control of the shape and size of the objects it creates and can create
patterns over an entire surface cost-effectively. Its main disadvantages
are that it requires a flat substrate to start with, it is not very
effective at creating shapes that are not flat, and it can require
extremely clean operating conditions. Photolithography is the standard
method of printed circuit board (PCB) and microprocessor fabrication.
Five Times the Computing Power -
Superconductors
Field-Programmable Gate Array is an integrated circuit designed to be
configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing – hence "
field-programmable".
The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a
hardware description language (HDL), similar to that used for an
application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). (Circuit diagrams were
previously used to specify the configuration, as they were for ASICs, but
this is increasingly rare.) FPGAs contain an array of programmable logic
blocks, and a hierarchy of reconfigurable interconnects that allow the
blocks to be "wired together", like many logic gates that can be
inter-wired in different configurations.
Logic
blocks can be configured to perform complex combinational functions,
or merely simple logic gates like AND and XOR. In most FPGAs, logic blocks
also include memory elements, which may be simple flip-flops or more
complete blocks of memory.
Fast Fourier Transform algorithm computes the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT) of a sequence, or its inverse (IFFT). Fourier analysis
converts a signal from its original domain (often time or space) to a
representation in the frequency domain and vice versa. An FFT rapidly
computes such transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product
of sparse (mostly zero) factors.
Redox-Based Resistive Switching Random Access Memory (ReRAM)
-
A team of international scientists have found a way to make
memory chips perform computing tasks, which is traditionally
done by computer processors like those made by Intel and
Qualcomm. Currently, all computer processors in the market are
using the
binary
system, which is composed of two states -- either 0 or 1.
For example, the letter A will be processed and stored as
01000001, an 8-bit character. However, the prototype ReRAM
circuit built by Asst Prof Chattopadhyay and his collaborators processes data in four states instead of two. For example,
it can store and process data as 0, 1, 2, or 3, known as Ternary
number system. Because ReRAM uses different electrical
resistance to store information, it could be possible to store
the data in an even higher number of states, hence speeding up
computing tasks beyond current limitations current computer
systems, all information has to be translated into a string of
zeros and ones before it can be processed.
Parallel
Computing: 18-core credit card sized computer.
Very Large Scale Integration is the process of creating an integrated
circuit (IC) by combining millions of MOS transistors onto a single chip.
VLSI began in the 1970s when MOS integrated circuit chips were widely
adopted, enabling complex semiconductor and telecommunication technologies
to be developed. The microprocessor and memory chips are VLSI devices.
Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited set of
functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a
CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI lets IC designers add all of
these into one chip.
Neuromorphic Engineering also known as neuromorphic
computing, is a concept describing the use of very-large-scale
integration (VLSI) systems containing electronic analog circuits
to mimic neuro-biological architectures present in the nervous
system. Very-Large-Scale Integration is the current level of
computer microchip miniaturization and refers to microchips
containing in the hundreds of thousands of transistors. LSI
(large-scale integration) meant microchips containing thousands
of transistors. Earlier, MSI (medium-scale integration) meant a
microchip containing hundreds of transistors and SSI
(small-scale integration) meant transistors in the tens.
Memristor or memory
resistor, is a hypothetical non-linear
passive two-terminal electrical component relating
electric
charge and magnetic flux linkage. According to the
characterizing mathematical relations, the memristor would
hypothetically operate in the following way: The memristor's
electrical resistance is not constant but depends on the history
of current that had previously flowed through the device, i.e.,
its present resistance depends on how much electric charge has
flowed in what direction through it in the past; the device
remembers its history — the so-called
non-volatility property.
When the electric power supply is turned off, the memristor
remembers its most recent resistance until it is turned on
again. Memristor is capable of altering its resistance and
storing multiple memory states, ability to retain data by 'remembering'
the amount of charge that has passed through them - potentially resulting
in computers that
switch on and off instantly and
never forget. New memristor technology that can store up to 128
discernible memory states per switch, almost four times more than
previously reported.
Memristors Cut Energy Consumption by a Factor of 100. A new way of
arranging advanced computer components called memristors on a chip could
enable them to be used for general computing, which could cut energy
consumption by a factor of 100.
Transistors -
Phototransistor -
Superconductors
Memristive devices by combining incipient ferroelectrics and graphene.
Scientists are working to create neuromorphic computers, with a design
based on the human brain. A crucial component is a memristive device, the
resistance of which depends on the history of the device - just like the
response of our neurons depends on previous input. Materials scientists
analyzed the behavior of strontium titanium oxide, a platform material for
memristor research and used the 2D material
graphene to probe it.
New technique for magnetization switching that is nearly 100 times
faster than state-of-the-art spintronic devices. The advance could lead to
the development of ultrafast
magnetic memory for
computer chips that would retain data even when there is no power. (the
process used to 'write' information into magnetic memory).
Researchers harness 2D magnetic materials for energy-efficient computing.
An MIT team precisely controlled an ultrathin magnet at room temperature,
which could enable faster, more efficient processors and computer
memories.
Light-induced Meissner effect. Researchers have developed a new
experiment capable of monitoring the
magnetic properties of
superconductors at
very fast speeds. Superconductivity is a fascinating phenomenon, which
allows a material to sustain an
electrical current without any loss. This collective quantum behavior
of matter only appears in certain conductors at
temperatures far below ambient. A
number of modern studies have investigated this behavior in so-called
non-equilibrium states, that is in situations in which the material is
pushed away from thermal equilibrium. In these conditions, it appears that
at least some of the features of superconductivity can be recreated even
at ambient temperatures. Such non-equilibrium high temperature
superconductivity, shown to exist under irradiation with a laser pulse,
may be useful for applications different from the ones envisaged for the
stationary version of superconductivity, as for example in high-speed
devices controlled by laser pulses. This phenomenon has been termed
"light-induced superconductivity," signaling an analogy with its
equilibrium counterpart. This experiment was made possible by placing a
spectator crystal in close vicinity of the sample under investigation and
using it to measure the local magnetic field strength. The crystal
reflects changes in the magnetic field into changes in the polarization
state of a femtosecond laser pulse. "Due to the short duration of the
probe pulse, we can reconstruct the time evolution of the magnetic field
surrounding the YBa2Cu3O6.48 sample with sub-picosecond resolution and
unprecedented sensitivity.
Meissner Effect
is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its
transition to the superconducting state when it is cooled below the
critical temperature. This expulsion will repel a nearby magnet.
New Fermi arcs could provide a new path for electronics. Newly
discovered Fermi arcs that can be controlled through
magnetism could be the future of
electronics based on electron spins. During a recent investigation of the
rare-earth monopnictide NdBi (neodymium-bismuth), researchers discovered a
new type of Fermi arc that appeared at low temperatures when the material
became antiferromagnetic, i.e., neighboring spins point in opposite
directions.
Mass production of revolutionary computer memory moves closer with
ULTRARAM™ on silicon wafers for the first time. A pioneering type of
patented computer memory known as ULTRARAM™ has been demonstrated on
silicon wafers in what is a major step towards its large-scale
manufacture. ULTRARAM™ is novel type of memory with extraordinary
properties. It combines the non-volatility of a data storage memory, like
flash, with the speed, energy-efficiency and endurance of a working
memory, like DRAM. To do this it utilizes the unique properties of
compound semiconductors, commonly used in photonic devices such as LEDS,
laser diodes and infrared detectors, but not in digital electronics, which
is the preserve of silicon.
Engineers put tens of thousands of artificial brain synapses on a single
chip. The design could advance the development of small, portable AI
devices. Engineers have designed a 'brain-on-a-chip,' smaller than a piece
of confetti, that is made from tens of thousands of artificial brain
synapses known as memristors -- silicon-based components that mimic the
information-transmitting synapses in the human brain.
Study opens route to Ultra-Low-Power Microchips. Innovative approach
to controlling magnetism could lead to next-generation memory and logic
devices.
Illinois team advances GaN-on-Silicon technology towards
scalable high electron mobility transistors.
Small tilt in
Magnets makes them viable Memory Chips -
Nano Technology
T-Rays will “speed up” computer memory by a factor of 1,000.
Germanium Tin Laser Could Increase Processing Speed of Computer
Chips.
Computer Chip Vulnerabilities Discovered.
Fast, Flexible Ionic Transistors for Bioelectronic Devices.
Researchers have developed the first biocompatible internal-ion-gated
organic electrochemical transistor (IGT) that is fast enough to enable
real-time signal sensing and stimulation of brain signals.
Synaptic
Transistor is an electrical device that can learn in ways similar to a
neural synapse. It optimizes its own properties for the functions it has
carried out in the past. The device mimics the behavior of the property of
neurons called
spike-timing-dependent
plasticity, or STDP.
Light Speed
Virtually Energy-Free Superfast Computing invented by scientists using
light pulses.
Optical switching at record speeds opens door for ultrafast,
light-based electronics and computers. Imagine a home computer operating 1
million times faster than the most expensive hardware on the market. Now,
imagine that being the industry standard. Physicists hope to pave the way
for that reality. Semiconductor-based transistors are in all of the
electronics that we use today in 2023. Semiconductors in electronics rely
on electrical signals transmitted via microwaves to switch -- either allow
or prevent -- the flow of electricity and data, represented as either "on"
or "off." The future of electronics will be based instead on using laser
light to control electrical signals, opening the door for the
establishment of "optical transistors" and the development of ultrafast
optical electronics.
Lightwave electronics for faster compute speeds. Researchers from the
University of Rochester have created
lightwave-based
logic gates. Lightwave electronics is a technique in which it is
possible to use laser pulses to guide and speed up electronics. The
concept is that an ultrashort laser pulse's extremely high-speed
oscillating electric field can excite electrons in an incident material
and create an effective current. A computer that runs at one petahertz
would allow it to essentially complete one quadrillion computational
operations each second.
Petahertz is an SI
unit of frequency equal to 10 to the 15 hertz
Silicon Photonics is the study and application of photonic
systems which use silicon as an optical medium. The silicon is
usually patterned with sub-micrometre precision, into
microphotonic components. These operate in the infrared, most
commonly at the 1.55 micrometre wavelength used by most
fiber
optic telecommunication systems. The silicon typically lies on
top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with a similar
construction in microelectronics) is known as silicon on
insulator (SOI).
Silicon Carbide is a compound of silicon and carbon with
chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely
rare mineral moissanite.
Synthetic silicon carbide powder has been mass-produced since
1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be
bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics that are
widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as
car brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof
vests. Electronic applications of silicon carbide such as
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios were
first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor
electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high
voltages, or both. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can
be grown by the Lely method; they can be cut into gems known as
synthetic moissanite. Silicon carbide with high surface area can
be produced from SiO2 contained in plant material.
ORNL Researchers Break Data Transfer Efficiency Record
transfer of information via superdense coding, a process by
which the properties of particles like photons, protons and
electrons are used to store as much information as possible.
Superdense Coding is a technique used to send two
bits of classical
information using only one qubit, which is a unit of quantum
information.
Quantum Computing makes direct use of quantum-mechanical
phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform
operations on data.
Quantum computers are different from binary
digital electronic computers based on transistors. Whereas
common digital computing requires that the data are encoded into
binary digits
(bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0
or 1), quantum computation uses quantum bits, which can be in
superpositions of states.
A
Single Atom can store One Bit of Binary information. When the
holmium
atoms were placed on a special surface made of magnesium oxide,
they naturally oriented themselves with a magnetic north and south
pole—just like regular magnets have—pointing either straight up or down,
and remained that way in a stable condition. What’s more, they could make
the atoms flip by giving them a zap with a scanning tunneling microscope
that has a needle with a tip just one atom wide. Orientation conveys
binary information—either a
one
or a zero. Experiment shows that they could store one bit of
information in just one atom. If this kind of technology could be scaled
up, it theoretically could hold 80,000 gigabytes of information in just a
square inch. A credit-card-size device could hold 35 million songs. Atoms
could be placed within just about a nanometer of each other without
interfering with their neighbors, meaning they could be packed densely.
This tech won't show up in your smartphone anytime soon. For starters, the
experiment required a very, very chilly temperature: 1 degree Kelvin,
which is colder than -450 Fahrenheit. That's pretty energy intensive, and
not exactly practical in most data storage settings.
Single-Atom Transistor is the world's smallest. This quantum
electronics component switches electrical current by controlled
repositioning of a single atom, now also in the solid state in a gel
electrolyte. The single-atom transistor works at room temperature and
consumes very little energy, which opens up entirely new perspectives for
information technology.
Single Molecules Can Work as Reproducible Transistors—at Room Temperature
Diamond-Based Circuits can take the Heat for advanced applications.
Researchers have developed a
hydrogenated diamond circuit operational at 300 degrees Celsius. When
power generators transfer electricity, they lose almost 10 percent of the
generated power. To address this, scientists are researching new diamond
semiconductor circuits to make power conversion systems more efficient
using hydrogenated diamond. These circuits can be used in diamond-based
electronic devices that are smaller, lighter and more efficient than
silicon-based devices.
Controlling waves in magnets with superconductors for the first time.
Quantum physicists have shown that it's possible to control and manipulate
spin waves on a chip using superconductors for the first time. These tiny
waves in magnets may offer an alternative to electronics in the future,
interesting for energy-efficient information technology or connecting
pieces in a quantum computer, for example. The breakthrough primarily
gives physicists new insight into the interaction between magnets and
superconductors.
Superatomic semiconductor sets a speed record. A team of chemists
describes the fastest and most efficient semiconductor yet: a superatomic
material called
Re6Se8Cl2. The atomic structure of any material vibrates, which
creates quantum particles called
phonons.
Phonons in turn cause the particles -- either
electrons or electron-hole pairs
called
excitons --
that carry energy and information around electronic devices to scatter in
a matter of nanometers and femtoseconds. This means that energy is lost in
the form of heat, and that information transfer has a speed limit.
Transforming biology to design next-generation computers, using a surprise
ingredient. A group has found ways of transforming structures that
occur naturally in cell membranes to create other architectures, like
parallel 1nm-wide line segments, more applicable to computing.
The moment you turn on your pc, what
you
see is the work of thousands and thousands of people,
educated in the fields of engineering, science, math and
physics, just to name a few. And that's just the software. The
hardware also took the work of thousands of skilled people.
Covering many different industries, which adds the work of
thousands of more people. I'm also a product that
took millions of people
over
thousands of years to
make, just to get me here in this
moment in time.
Researchers Repurpose failed cancer drug into Printable Semiconductor.
Biological molecules once considered for cancer treatment are now being
repurposed as organic semiconductors for use in chemical sensors and
transistors.
Computer Industry is the range of businesses involved in
designing computer
hardware and computer
networking infrastructures, developing
computer software, manufacturing
computer
components, and providing
information
technology (IT) services.
Software Industry includes businesses for development,
maintenance and
publication of
software that are using
different business models, also includes software services, such
as training, documentation, consulting and data recovery.
Source of error in an industry-standard calibration method that could
lead microchip manufacturers to lose a million dollars or more in a single
fabrication run. The error occurs when measuring very small flows of
exotic gas mixtures. Small gas flows occur during chemical vapor
deposition (CVD), a process that occurs inside a vacuum chamber when
ultra-rarefied gases flow across a silicon wafer to deposit a solid film.
CVD is widely used to fabricate many kinds of high-performance microchips
containing as many as several billion transistors. CVD builds up complex
3D structures by depositing successive layers of atoms or molecules; some
layers are only a few atoms thick. A complementary process called plasma
etching also uses small flows of exotic gases to produce tiny features on
the surface of semiconducting materials by removing small amounts of silicon.
The First Computer - History of Computers
Antikythera Mechanism
is
2,100-year-old ancient Analog Computer. An international team of scientists has now read about
3,500 characters of explanatory text. The device was used to
predict astronomical positions and
eclipses for
calendar and astrological purposes
decades in
advance. It could also be used to track the four-year cycle of
athletic games which was similar to an Olympiad, the
cycle of the ancient
Olympic Games. The device, housed in the remains of a 34 cm × 18 cm × 9 cm
(13.4 in × 7.1 in × 3.5 in) wooden box. Detailed imaging of the mechanism
suggests that it had 37 gear wheels enabling it to follow the
movements of
the Moon and the Sun through the zodiac, to predict eclipses and even to
model the irregular orbit of the Moon, where the Moon's velocity is higher
in its perigee than in its apogee. A
complex
clockwork mechanism composed of
37 meshing
bronze gears with some turning clockwise and some counterclockwise.
The gear teeth were in the form of equilateral triangles with an average
circular pitch of 1.6 mm, an average wheel thickness of 1.4 mm and an
average air gap between gears of 1.2 mm. The teeth probably were created
from a blank bronze round using hand tools; this is evident because not
all of them are even.
The Sun gear is b1/b2 and b2
has 64 teeth. This artefact was retrieved from the sea in 1901, and
identified on 17 May 1902 as containing a gear by archaeologist Valerios
Stais, among wreckage retrieved from a shipwreck off the coast of the
Greek island Antikythera. The instrument is believed to have been designed
and constructed by Greek scientists and has been variously dated to about
87 BC, or between 150 and 100 BC, or to 205 BC, or to within a generation
before the shipwreck, which has been dated to approximately 70–60 BC.
Punch Card -
Computer Types -
Computer History
Difference
Engine is an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate
polynomial functions. It was designed in the
1820s,
and was first created by Charles Babbage. The name, the difference engine,
is derived from the method of divided differences, a way to interpolate or
tabulate functions by using a small set of polynomial co-efficients. Some
of the most common mathematical functions used in engineering, science and
navigation, were, and still are computable with the use of the difference
engine's capability of computing logarithmic and trigonometric functions,
which can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can
compute many useful tables of numbers.
Ada Lovelace.
Analytical Engine was a proposed
mechanical general-purpose computer
designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer
Charles Babbage. It was first described in
1837 as the successor to Babbage's difference engine, a design for
a simpler mechanical computer. The Analytical Engine incorporated an
arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching
and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a
general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as
Turing-complete. In other words, the logical structure of the Analytical
Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer
design in the electronic era. The Analytical Engine is one of the most
successful achievements of Charles Babbage. Babbage was never able to
complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his
chief engineer and inadequate funding. It was not until the late
1940s that the
first general-purpose computers were actually built, more than a century
after Babbage had proposed the pioneering Analytical Engine in 1837.
Difference Engine (youtube)
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Women Coders.
Charles Babbage
was an English polymath. A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and
mechanical engineer, Babbage is best remembered for originating the
concept of a digital programmable computer. (Born December 26, 1791 – Died October18,
1871).
Analog Computer is a type of computer that uses the
continuously changeable aspects of physical
phenomena such as
electrical network,
mechanics, or
hydraulics quantities to
model the problem being solved. In contrast,
digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by
discrete values of both time and amplitude. Analog computers can have a
very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are the simplest,
while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog
computers were among the most complicated. Systems for process control and
protective relays used analog
computation
to perform control and protective functions. Analog computers were widely
used in scientific and industrial applications even after the advent of
digital computers, because at the time they were typically much faster,
but they started to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s,
although they remained in use in some specific applications, such as
aircraft flight simulators, the flight computer in aircraft, and for
teaching control systems in universities. More complex applications, such
as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, remained the
domain of analog computing (and hybrid computing) well into the 1980s,
since digital computers were insufficient for the task.
Mechanical
Calculators.
Analog Computer is a form of computer that uses the
continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as quantities to
model the problem being solved. Digital computers represent
varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values
change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but
rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated
with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines. Unlike
digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from
the quantization noise, but are limited by analog noise.
Mechanical Computer is built from mechanical components such as levers
and gears, rather than electronic components. The most common examples are
adding machines and mechanical counters, which use the turning of gears to
increment output displays. More complex examples could carry out
multiplication and division—Friden used a moving head which paused at each
column—and even differential analysis. One model sold in the 1960s
calculated square roots. Mechanical computers can be either analog, using
smooth mechanisms such as curved plates or slide rules for computations;
or digital, which use gears.
Differential Analyser is a mechanical analogue computer designed to
solve
differential equations by
integration, using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration.
It was one of the first advanced computing devices to be used
operationally. The original machines could not add, but then it was
noticed that if the two wheels of a rear differential are turned, the
drive shaft will compute the average of the left and right wheels. A
simple gear ratio of 1:2 then enables multiplication by two, so addition
(and subtraction) are achieved. Multiplication is just a special case of
integration, namely integrating a constant function.
Curta is a small mechanical calculator developed by Curt
Herzstark in the
1930s in Vienna, Austria. By 1938, he had filed
a key patent, covering his complemented stepped drum, Deutsches
Reichspatent (German National Patent) No. 747073. This single
drum replaced the multiple drums, typically around 10 or so, of
contemporary calculators, and it enabled not only addition, but
subtraction through nines complement math, essentially
subtracting by adding. The nines' complement math breakthrough
eliminated the significant mechanical complexity created when
"borrowing" during subtraction. This drum would prove to be the
key to the small, hand-held mechanical calculator the Curta
would become. Curtas were considered the best portable
calculators available until they were displaced by electronic
calculators in the 1970s.
Turing
Machine is an abstract machine that manipulates symbols on a
strip of tape according to a table of rules; to be more exact,
it is a mathematical model of computation that defines such a
device. Despite the model's simplicity, given any computer
algorithm, a
turing machine can be constructed that is capable
of simulating that
algorithm's logic.
1936.
Konrad
Zuse built the world's first programmable computer in
May 1941, calculating one operation per
second. The functional program-controlled Turing-complete Z3. Thanks to
this machine and its predecessors, Zuse has often been regarded as the
inventor of the modern computer. Zuse was also noted for the S2 computing
machine, considered the first process control computer. He founded one
of the earliest computer businesses in 1941, producing the Z4, which
became the world's first commercial computer. From 1943 to 1945 he
designed the first high-level programming language, Plankalkül. In 1969,
Zuse suggested the concept of a computation-based universe in his book
Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space).
Harvard Mark I
was a
general-purpose electromechanical computer used
in the war effort during the last part of World War II. One of the first
programs to run on the Mark I was initiated on 29 March
1944 by John von Neumann. (IBM Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator or ASCC).
Pioneers in Computer Science (wiki)
Abstract Machine also called an abstract computer, is a
theoretical model of a computer hardware or software system used
in automata theory. Abstraction of computing processes is used
in both the computer science and computer engineering
disciplines and usually assumes a discrete time paradigm.
Autonomous Machines (drones)
Jacquard Loom is a device fitted to a
power loom that simplifies the
process of manufacturing textiles with such complex patterns as brocade,
damask and matelassé. It was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in
1804. The loom was controlled by a "chain
of cards"; a number of
punched cards laced
together into a continuous sequence. Multiple rows of holes were punched
on each card, with one complete card corresponding to one row of the
design.
Computer Programming in the Punched Card Era was the
invention of computer programming languages up to the mid-1980s,
many if not most computer programmers created, edited and stored
their programs line by line on punched cards. The practice was
nearly universal with IBM computers in the era. A punched card
is a flexible write-once medium that encodes data, most commonly
80 characters. Groups or "decks" of cards form programs and
collections of data. Users could create cards using a desk-sized
keypunch with a typewriter-like keyboard. A typing error
generally necessitated repunching an entire card. In some
companies, programmers wrote information on special forms called
coding sheets, taking care to distinguish the digit zero from
the letter O, the digit one from the letter I, eight from B, two
from Z, and so on. These forms were then converted to cards by
keypunch operators, and in some cases, checked by verifiers. The
editing of programs was facilitated by reorganizing the cards,
and removing or replacing the lines that had changed; programs
were backed up by duplicating the deck, or writing it to
magnetic tape.
Keypunch is a device for precisely punching holes into stiff
paper cards at specific locations as determined by keys struck
by a human operator.
Punched Card is a piece of stiff paper that can be used to
contain digital information represented by the presence or
absence of holes in predefined positions. The information
might be data for data processing applications or, in earlier
examples, used to directly control automated machinery. The
terms IBM card, or Hollerith card specifically refer to punched
cards used in semiautomatic data processing. Punched cards were
widely used through much of the 20th century in what became
known as the data processing industry, where specialized and
increasingly complex unit record machines, organized into data
processing systems, used punched cards for data input, output,
and storage. Many early digital computers used punched cards,
often prepared using keypunch machines, as the primary medium
for input of both computer programs and data. While punched
cards are now obsolete as a recording medium, as of 2012, some
voting machines still use punched cards to record votes.
Even back in 1968, workers were worried about being replaced by technology
| RetroFocus (youtube) -
Four Corners Australian TV Program predicted that computers would soon
take over and change the workforce.
The First
Apple Computer on the right (
1976).
Monochrome Monitor or Green screen was the common name for a
monochrome monitor using a green "P1" phosphor screen. CRT
computer monitor which was very common in the early days of
computing, from the 1960s through the 1980s, before
color
monitors became popular. Monochrome monitors have only one color
of phosphor (mono means "one", and chrome means "
color"). Pixel
for pixel, monochrome monitors produce sharper text and images
than color CRT monitors. This is because a monochrome monitor is
made up of a continuous coating of phosphor and the sharpness
can be controlled by focusing the electron beam; whereas on a
color monitor, each pixel is made up of three phosphor dots (one
red, one blue, one green) separated by a mask. Monochrome
monitors were used in almost all dumb terminals and are still
widely used in text-based applications such as computerized cash
registers and point of sale systems because of their superior
sharpness and enhanced readability.
1983
Compaq
came out with a portable computer, which sold over 50,000 in the first
year, while IBM sold 750,000 pc's that same year. In a few short years,
Compaq became a billion dollar company. IBM tried to make
Intel
sell a new chip only to them but Intel refused so they could sell their
chips to more companies.
Intel 80386 a
32-bit microprocessor introduced in 1985 had 275,000 transistors. In May
2006, Intel announced that 80386 production would stop at the end of
September 2007.
Embedded System
is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical
or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It
is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and
mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in common use
today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are manufactured as
components of embedded systems.
Then the
Extended Industry Standard Architecture was announced in September
1988 by a consortium of PC clone vendors (the "Gang of Nine") as a counter
to IBM's use of its proprietary Micro Channel architecture (MCA) in its
PS/2 series and end IBM's monopoly. But that only gave rise to Microsoft's
Monopoly.
Exclusive Right. But by 1991, things got
worse for Compaq. Other computer companies came into the market, and IBM's
patent trolls attacked Compaq. In 2002 Compaq merged with
Hewlett Packard.
Organic computers are coming. Scientists found a molecule
that will help to make organic electronic devices.
Radialene are alicyclic organic compounds containing n
cross-conjugated exocyclic double bonds.
Worlds Smallest Computer
Michigan Micro Mote (M3)
Histories Greatest Inventions
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Computer Types
Computer Movies - Films about Computers
The Machine that
Changed the World - Episode II - Inventing the Future
(youtube)
HyperLand (youtube)
The Virtual Revolution (youtube)
Internet Rising (youtube)
The Code - Linux (film)
All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace (vimeo)
Kids Growing Up Online (PBS)
"Most of what we think of as computers is just an
illusion. The text on the screen doesn't really exist. Its an array of
lights being manipulated by the computer based on the contents of the
computers ram which is just a bunch of
low and high voltage states."