Human Brain - Neuroscience - Cognitive Science
The Human Brain is the most
complex
processer of
information on the
planet.
Our ability to
process information and
store information is what makes us
human.
Information
defines us,
information
controls
us, and
information
teaches us.
Language
is the
software
of the
mind and your
body
is the
hardware. And just like a
computer, the brain is a
technology that can
be
misused or
manipulated.
So if you don't
learn how to
use it,
you'll
lose it.
Brain Research -
Plasticity -
Brain Maintenance -
Brain Injury -
Neuroscience -
Nervous
System -
Imaging
-
Brain and Computer Similarities
-
Wonderful Brain (pdf) -
Artificial Brain
-
Split Brain
Learning about the
inner workings of your brain
can help you to understand your
abilities as well as
your
vulnerabilities.
The
prefrontal cortex, which controls
focus, planning,
and
efficient action, takes almost
20 years to
mature.
A
baby’s brain
cerebral cortex expands by 88 percent in the
first year of
life. Its
cells are also
reorganizing themselves and rapidly forming new
connections to one another.
The brain is
complex, but
it's not impossible to understand.
Mind - What's Going On Up There
Mind is a set of
cognitive faculties including
consciousness, perception,
thinking, judgment, and
memory. The mind is the faculty of a human being's
reasoning and
thoughts. It holds
the power of
imagination,
recognition, and
appreciation, and is responsible for processing
feelings and
emotions,
resulting in
attitudes and
actions.
Signals -
Nervous System
-
Wires -
ProteinsMental
is involving the mind or an
intellectual process.
Behavior
-
Psychology -
Intelligence -
Soul -
Cognitive Science -
Abstract -
Fantasy
Psyche is that which is responsible for
one's thoughts and feelings. The seat of the faculty of reason. The
immaterial part of a person. The actuating cause of an individual life.
Mentally prepare.
Theory
of Mind is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs,
intents, desires,
pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to
understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and
perspectives
that are different from one's own.
Theory of Mind (youtube)
Empathy
-
Identity -
Body Image -
Mirrors
-
Consciousness
-
Dualism -
Two Sides
Children do not understand concept of others having false beliefs until
age 6 or 7. Understanding how others think, including the ability of
other people to hold false beliefs, is important for social interaction.
Called theory of mind, this ability has been thought to occur in children
around age 4 years. New research suggests otherwise and shows that
children do not understand others' false beliefs until age 6 or 7 years.
Young children can pass theory-of-mind experiments using rudimentary
concepts of seeing and knowing, without an understanding of mental
representation. This work has implications for development and education.
Child Development -
Language -
Operating
System
Mirror Neuron is a
neuron that fires both when an animal
acts and when the animal
observes the same action performed by another.
Mirror Stage.
Philosophy of
Mind is a branch of
philosophy
that studies the
nature of the mind, mental events,
mental functions,
mental properties,
consciousness,
and their
relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain.
Gestalt
Psychology is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of
experimental psychology.
Functionalism in
philosophy of mind is a view in the theory of the
mind. It states that mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.)
are constituted solely by their
functional
role – that is, they have
causal relations
to other mental states, numerous
sensory inputs, and
behavioral outputs. Functionalism
developed largely as an alternative to the identity theory of mind and
behaviorism. Functionalism is a theoretical level between the physical
implementation and
behavioral output. Therefore, it is different from its
predecessors of Cartesian
dualism (advocating independent mental and
physical substances) and Skinnerian behaviorism and physicalism (declaring
only physical substances) because it is only concerned with the effective
functions of the brain, through its organization or its "
software
programs". Since mental states are identified by a functional role, they
are said to be realized on
multiple levels; in other words, they are able to be manifested in
various systems, even perhaps
computers,
so long as the system performs the appropriate functions. While computers
are physical devices with electronic substrate that perform computations
on inputs to give outputs, so brains are physical devices with neural
substrate that perform computations on inputs which produce behaviors.
Functional Psychology refers to a
psychological philosophy that
considers mental life and behavior in terms of active
adaptation to the
person's environment. As such, it provides the general basis for
developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled
experiments and for applied
psychology.
Mind-Body Problem is the question of how the
human mind and body can
causally interact. This question arises when mind and body are
considered as distinct, based on the premise that the mind and the body
are fundamentally different in nature.
Noetics
is a branch of
metaphysics
concerned with the study of mind as well as
intellect. There is also
a reference to the science of noetics, which covers the field of
thinking and
knowing, thought and
knowledge, as well as
mental operations, processes,
states, and products through the data of the
written word.
Farthest Most Outer
Reaches of the Mind are the
thoughts never explored and the questions never asked.
Furthest Thing from Someone's Mind is
something that never occurred to someone or something that someone is
definitely not thinking about.
Mind-Body
Dualism is a view in the
philosophy of mind that mental phenomena are,
in some respects, non-physical, or that the mind and body are distinct and
separable. At times you could feel that the mind is separate, by
focusing or
meditating. But the
body influences the mind
and vice versa.
Will Power is
a skill.
Dualism -
Two Sides.
Ghost in the
Machine the notion that the mind is distinct from the body and refers
to the idea as "the ghost in the machine".
The Concept of
Mind argues that "mind" is "a philosophical illusion".
By Design.
Black Box is a device that performs particular functions
without the user having any
knowledge of its internal workings or without the user understanding
how the device
processes information, or
the
reasoning behind its
decisions. Its implementation is
invisible or
secret. A black box is a
system or an object
that can be viewed in terms of its
inputs and outputs or by the
transfer of certain characteristics. The word black is used
in this sense to
describe something that
does not
transmit any visible light, so it's impossible to understand, since
you can't see anything. Many things can be referred to as a black box,
like a transistor or an
algorithm.
But they may not be a black box to someone who designs and creates
transistors or algorithms. The human brain is a black box to most people
because we are just starting to learn more about how the brain works. The
opposite of a black box is a
white box, which is a system that is
transparent and
open, and the inner workings,
components and logic are
available for
inspection. A black box is like a
calculator, it
gives you the answer but does not tell you how the answer was calculated.
Like the decisions some
judges
make on the Supreme Court.
Black Box Testing -
Analyze -
Forensic Science -
Knowledge
Preservation -
Reptilian Brain -
Drones -
Chatbots
-
Hidden
Layers in Neural Networks -
Fake News -
Ulterior Motives -
Charlatans -
False Flag -
Prejudice -
Assumptions -
Behind the Curtains -
Controlling History
-
Transparency -
Illusion of Control
Closed Platform or
walled garden or
closed ecosystem is a software system wherein the carrier or service
provider has control over applications, content, and/or media, and
restricts convenient access to
non-approved applicants or content. This is in contrast to an
open platform,
wherein consumers generally have
unrestricted access to applications and content.
What is the Brain Made of - How does the Brain get Energy
Human Brain weighs about
3 Pounds, which is 2% of a person's
weight, but consumes as much as 25 percent of our body’s
oxygen, burns 20% of our total
calories each day, with
glucose being the main
energy source for the brain that runs
on around
12 watts of power, which is a fifth of the power
required by a standard 60 watt light bulb. The Brain has 400
miles of
capillaries,
86 Billion Microscopic
neurons in constant
synaptic
communication, making
10 quadrillion calculations every second.
Each neuron is like a tiny branching tree, whose limbs reach out
and touch other neurons making between 5,000 and 10,000
connections with other neurons, that’s more than
500 trillion
connections performing a
dazzling
array of complex mental processes every second, geared
to generating and regulating our
sensations and
perceptions, how
we
reason, how we
think,
our
emotions, our
mental images, our
attention span,
learning,
and our
memory
which is essentially a
Pattern of
connections between neurons.
Protein.
A Fragment of Human Brain, mapped in exquisite detail. Researchers
have created the largest synaptic-resolution, 3D reconstruction of a piece
of human brain to date, showing in vivid detail each cell and its web of
neural connections in a piece of human temporal cortex about
half the size of a rice grain. A
cubic millimeter of brain tissue may not
sound like much. But considering that tiny square contains 57,000 cells,
230 millimeters of blood vessels, and
150 million synapses,
all amounting to 1,400 terabytes of data, Harvard and Google researchers
have just accomplished something enormous.
A piece of brain matter the
size of a
grain of sand contains approximately 100,000 neurons, 2 million
axons, and 1 billion synapses.
What is the synaptic firing rate of the human brain? 200 times per second, 17.2 trillion
action potentials?
Each neuron has, on average, about 7,000 synaptic connections with other
neurons. That puts the synapse count in the neighborhood of
600 trillion synapses. In young children,
before
synaptic pruning begins in earnest, the
estimated number reaches as high as 1 quadrillion synapses.
Brain Waves.
Resting Metabolic Rate of the Human
Brain - 1300
kilocalories, or kcal, the kind used in nutrition.
1,300 kcal over 24 hours = 54.16 kcal per hour = 15.04 gram
calories per second.
15.04 gram calories/sec = 62.93 joules/sec = about 63 watts.
20 percent of 63 watts = 12.6 watts.
Energy Drain of a Brain at Rest. Tiny sacs
called vesicles, that hold messages being transmitted between brain cells,
may be constantly oozing energy, and that leakage is likely a trade-off
for the brain being ready to fire at all times, according to a new study
published December 3rd 2021 in the
journal
Science Advances. Scientists previously assumed this energy drain had
to do with the fact that the brain is electrically active, which means
that brain cells, or neurons, are constantly firing electrical signals to
communicate, a process that burns large amounts of an energy molecule
known as adenosine 5'-triphosphate or ATP. A team has been researching
junctions in the brain called synapses, where neurons meet and communicate
by launching tiny vesicles packed with chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters. They found that a "proton pump"
was responsible for about 44% of all the energy used in the resting
synapse. When they dug further, the researchers discovered that the
proton pump had to keep working, and
burning ATP, because the vesicles were always "leaking" protons. But the
researchers found that even after the vesicles were full of
neurotransmitters, the transporter proteins continued to change shape.
Even though they weren't carrying neurotransmitters into the vesicles,
they continued to spit protons out, requiring the proton pump to keep
working to refill the vesicle's reservoir of protons.
ATP or
Adenosine Triphosphate is a nucleoside triphosphate which is a
small molecule used in cells as a
coenzyme. It is often referred to as the
"
molecular unit of currency" of intracellular
energy transfer.
When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di- or
monophosphates, respectively
ADP and
AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles
its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to
DNA and RNA. From the perspective of
biochemistry.
ATP
is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it
consists of three components: a nitrogenous base (
adenine),
the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate. 3 ways ATP is generated:
Cellular Respiration.
Aerobic, converts glucose to
36 ATP+co2+H2O.
Creatine phosphate breakdown.
Anaerobic, recharges ADP to
ATP.
Fermentation. anaerobic, converts
glucose to 2 ATP + lactic acid.
Magnesium -
Mitochondrial DNA -
Proton
Pump.
ATP Trapping. Trapping the ATP binding state leads to a detailed
understanding of the F1-ATPase mechanism.
Polyphosphates are salts or esters of polymeric oxyanions formed from
tetrahedral PO4 (phosphate) structural units linked together by sharing
oxygen atoms. Polyphosphates can adopt linear
or a cyclic ring structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and
ATP are involved in energy storage. A variety of polyphosphates find
application in mineral sequestration in municipal waters, generally being
present at 1 to 5 ppm. GTP, CTP, and UTP are also nucleotides important in
the protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism,
respectively.
Nucleoside
Triphosphate is a molecule containing a
nitrogenous base bound to a 5-carbon sugar (either
ribose
or
deoxyribose), with three phosphate groups bound to the sugar. They are
the
building
blocks of both
DNA and RNA, which
are chains of nucleotides made through the processes of DNA replication
and transcription. Nucleoside triphosphates also serve as a source of
energy for cellular reactions and are involved in
signaling pathways.
Nucleoside triphosphates cannot be absorbed well, so they are typically
synthesized within the cell. Synthesis pathways differ depending on the
specific nucleoside triphosphate being made, but given the many important
roles of nucleoside triphosphates, synthesis is tightly regulated in all
cases. Nucleoside analogues may also be used to treat viral infections.
For example, azidothymidine (AZT) is a nucleoside analogue used to prevent
and treat
HIV/AIDS.
Discovery of cellular mechanism to maintain brain's energy could benefit
late-life brain health. A key mechanism which detects when the brain
needs an additional energy boost to support its activity has been
identified in a study in mice and cells led by UCL scientists.
"So your brain requires a lot of
food energy, so don't waste it. You have to
make sure that you keep adding to your knowledge base so that
you are not just feeding yourself to run in circles, to never
progress or amount to anything is a waste of potential."
Scientists explain why neurons consume so much fuel even when at rest.
Pound for pound, the brain consumes vastly more energy than other organs,
and it remains a fuel-guzzler even when its neurons are not firing signals
called neurotransmitters to each other. Now researchers have found that
the process of packaging neurotransmitters may be responsible for this
energy drain.
How much Oxygen does the Brain need? The brain has a high energy
demand and reacts very sensitively to
oxygen deficiency. The brain
requires a disproportionate amount of energy compared to its body mass.
This energy is mainly generated by aerobic metabolic processes that
consume considerable amounts of
oxygen. Therefore, the oxygen concentrations in the brain are an
important parameter that influences the function of nerve cells and glial
cells. However, how much oxygen is consumed in the brain and how this is
related to neuronal activity was so far largely unknown.
Brain Basics Provides Information on How the Brain Works, how
mental illnesses are disorders of the
brain, and ongoing research that helps us better understand and treat disorders.
Gray Matter is made up of about
86 Billion Neurons and just as many non neuronal
cells which includes not just glial, but also the endothelial cells, which gather and transmit
signals
while the
white matter is made of dendrites and
axons that the neurons use to
transmit signals.
The brain is composted of about
75%
water and is the fattiest organ in the body, consisting of a minimum
of 60% fat. It's not the size of the brain that matters, it is the number
of neurons in the brain that gives it more information processing ability.
Bigger brains sometimes have less neurons because the neurons are larger,
and smaller brains can have more neurons because the neurons are smaller.
Cortex -
Lobes -
Reptilian Brain
Microscope system sharpens scientists' view of neural circuit connections.
A newly described technology improves the clarity and speed of using
two-photon microscopy to image synapses in the live brain. The brain's
ability to learn comes from "plasticity," in which neurons constantly edit
and remodel the tiny connections called synapses that they make with other
neurons to form circuits. To study plasticity, neuroscientists seek to
track it at high resolution across whole cells, but plasticity doesn't
wait for slow microscopes to keep pace and brain tissue is notorious for
scattering light and making images fuzzy. The system, called "
multiline
orthogonal scanning temporal focusing" (mosTF), works by scanning
brain tissue with lines of light in perpendicular directions. As with
other live brain imaging systems that rely on "two-photon microscopy,"
this scanning light "excites" photon emission from brain cells that have
been engineered to fluoresce when stimulated. The new system proved in the
team's tests to be eight times faster than a two-photon scope that goes
point by point, and proved to have a four-fold better signal to background
ratio (a measure of the resulting image clarity) than a two-photon system
that just scans in one direction.
The human brain is built and designed to learn and built
to be
creative. It's very important to know how you
developed, what
influences affected your development, and that human
development continues throughout your lifetime.
Left Side of Brain - Serial Processing
Serial
Memory Processing is the act of attending to and processing
one item at a time. This is usually contrasted against parallel
memory
processing, which is the act of attending to and
processing all items
simultaneously. Serial processing is
processing that
occurs
sequentially. There is an explicit order in which
operations occur and in general the
results of one action are
known before a next action is considered. Serial processing
systems may mimic the action of
parallel systems, albeit with a
concurrent (and usually serious) loss in efficiency. Compare to
parallel processing.
Jill Bolte Taylor TED
Talks (youtube)
N400
is part of the normal brain response to
words
and other meaningful (or potentially meaningful) stimuli, including visual
and auditory words, sign language signs, pictures, faces, environmental
sounds, and smells. A component of time-locked EEG signals known as
event-related potentials (ERP). It is a negative-going deflection that
peaks around 400 milliseconds post-stimulus onset, although it can extend
from 250-500 ms, and is typically maximal over centro-parietal electrode
sites.
Cerebral Hemisphere. The vertebrate cerebrum (brain) is
formed by two cerebral hemispheres that are separated by a groove, the
longitudinal fissure. The brain can thus be described as being divided
into left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each of these hemispheres has an
outer layer of
grey matter, the
cerebral cortex, that is supported by an inner layer
of white matter. In eutherian (placental) mammals, the hemispheres are
linked by the corpus callosum, a very large bundle of
nerve fibers. Smaller commissures, including the anterior commissure,
the posterior commissure and the fornix, also join the hemispheres and
these are also present in other vertebrates. These commissures transfer
information between the two hemispheres to coordinate localized functions.
There are three poles of the hemispheres named as the occcipital pole (at
the back), the frontal pole, and at the front of the temporal lobe the
temporal pole. The central sulcus is a prominent fissure which separates
the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe and the primary motor cortex from
the primary somatosensory cortex. Macroscopically the hemispheres are
roughly mirror images of each other, with only subtle differences, such as
the Yakovlevian torque seen in the human brain, which is a slight warping
of the right side, bringing it just forward of the left side. On a
microscopic level, the cytoarchitecture of the cerebral cortex, shows the
functions of cells, quantities of neurotransmitter levels and receptor
subtypes to be markedly asymmetrical between the hemispheres. However,
while some of these hemispheric distribution differences are consistent
across human beings, or even across some species, many observable
distribution differences vary from individual to individual within a given
species.
Interhemispheric is between
hemispheres, especially between the two hemispheres of the brain.
Unihemispheric Slow-Wave Sleep
Hemispheric Asymmetry Handedness and Cerebral Dominance
(Britannica)
Info Graphic
(image)
How the brain is not symmetrical and the hemispheres are not equal.
Although the brain is divided into two halves, it is not exactly a mirror
image. Some functions are processed more on the left side, others more on
the right. Scientists have now discovered heritable underpinnings of brain
asymmetry and how much we share with monkeys.
They say that it's easier to rehabilitate a
person who has had a
stroke on the left side of the brain then it is to
rehabilitate a person who has had a
stroke on the right side, why?
The ability to spell is in two areas of the
left hemisphere, one
towards the front of the brain and the other at the lower part
of the brain towards the back.
Cerebral
Cortex
Midbrain is a portion of the
central nervous
system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake,
arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.
Anatomical Terms of Location. All vertebrates (including humans) have
the same basic body plan – they are strictly
bilaterally symmetrical in early embryonic stages and largely
bilaterally symmetrical in adulthood. That is, they have mirror-image left
and right halves if divided down the middle.
Linear Learners
-
Holistic Learners
Children use both brain hemispheres to understand language, unlike adults.
Infants and young children have brains with a superpower, of sorts, say
neuroscientists. Whereas adults process most discrete neural tasks in
specific areas in one or the other of their brain's two hemispheres,
youngsters use both the right and left hemispheres to do the same task.
The finding suggests a possible reason why children appear to recover from
neural injury much easier than adults.
The left side of the brain is designed to be more focused on details
and facts, while the right side of the brain is more focused on the whole
picture, and is more relaxed, more understanding and more intuitive. When
the two sides of the brain are in perfect balance, they can offer
different perspectives, a second opinion and cognitive strategies that are
productive. But when the two sides of the brain are out of balance, they
can skew reality and cause misunderstandings and illogical behaviors and
dysfunction. The two sides are
not divided, they
work
together, like two eyes, two ears, two hands, and two feet. Knowledge
becomes the software that controls the balance between left and right sides of the brain.
Shoulder Angel
-
Dualism -
Two Faced -
The Mind -
Divergent Thinking -
Church and
State -
Checks and Balances -
Ying and Yang -
When one side of the Brain is Injured When one side of the brain can't
communicate with the other side of the brain in a particular way, then
certain information being processed is skewed, and sometimes without the
person noticing the error.
Split-Brain or callosal syndrome is a type of
disconnection syndrome
when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is
severed to some degree, such as with
Corpus Callosotomy or
with
Split-Brain Surgery that is performed in
patients with the most extreme and uncontrollable forms of
epilepsy, when
frequent seizures affect both sides of the brain. After the right and left
brain are separated,
each
hemisphere will have its own separate perception, concepts, and
impulses to act. Split-brained patients show that each cerebral hemisphere
has its own attentional system.
A
dual attention. When split-brain patients are shown an image only in
the left half of each eye's visual field, they cannot verbally name what
they have seen. This is because the brain's experiences of the senses is
contralateral. Communication between the two hemispheres is inhibited, so
the patient cannot say out loud the name of that which the right side of
the brain is seeing. A similar effect occurs if a split-brain patient
touches an object with only the left hand while receiving no visual cues
in the right visual field; the patient will be unable to name the object,
as each cerebral hemisphere of the primary somatosensory cortex only
contains a tactile representation of the opposite side of the body. If the
speech-control center is on the right side of the brain, the same effect
can be achieved by presenting the image or object to only the right visual
field or hand. Visual and tactile stimuli presented to the non-dominant
hemisphere are no longer verbally identified due to disconnection from the
language-dominant hemisphere. There is a dissociation between a patient's
ability to recognize and verbally name an object. Split-brain patients are
unable to integrate visual information across the two visual half-fields.
It's hard to learn how to perform new tasks that require interdependent
movement of each hand, such as learning to play the piano, where both
hands must work together to produce the desired music. There is an
inability to compare stimuli across the midline.
The
same effect occurs for visual pairs and reasoning. When they don't
know why they made a connection, they make up a reason, instead of saying
that they don't know why they made a connection. So they're making up
reasons without facts. Research over the years has shown that the
disconnected right hemisphere is superior to the disconnected left
hemisphere in allowing people to understand spatial information (such as
maps), music, and emotions, whereas the disconnected left hemisphere is
superior in allowing analytical thinking, talking, reading, and
understanding speech. The right hemisphere of the cortex excels at
nonverbal and spatial tasks, whereas the left hemisphere is more dominant
in verbal tasks, such as speaking and writing. The right hemisphere
controls the primary sensory functions of the left side of the body. In a
cognitive sense the right hemisphere is responsible for recognizing
objects and timing, and in an emotional sense it is responsible for
empathy, humor and
depression. On the other hand, the left hemisphere controls the primary
sensory functions of the
right side of the body and is responsible for scientific and math skills,
and logic. It is known that
the right and the left
hemisphere have different functions when it comes to memory. The right
hemisphere is better at recognizing objects and faces, recalling knowledge
that the individual has already learned, or recalling images already seen.
The left hemisphere is better at mental manipulation, language production,
and semantic priming but was more
susceptible to memory confusion than the right hemisphere. The main
issue for individuals that have undergone a callosotomy is that because
the
function of memory is split into two major
systems, the individual is more likely to become confused between
knowledge they already know and information that they have only inferred.
In general, split-brained patients behave in a coordinated, purposeful,
and consistent manner, despite the independent, parallel, usually
different, and occasionally conflicting processing of the same information
from the environment by the two disconnected hemispheres. When two
hemispheres receive competing stimuli at the same time, the response mode
tends to determine which hemisphere controls behavior. The two hemispheres
of the cerebral cortex are linked by the corpus callosum, through which
they communicate and
coordinate
actions and decisions. Communication and
coordination between the two
hemispheres is essential because each hemisphere has some separate
functions.
Corpus
Callosum is a large, C-shaped nerve fiber bundle found
beneath the cerebral cortex. It stretches across the
midline of the brain,
connecting the left and right
cerebral hemispheres. It makes up the largest collection of
white matter tissue found in the brain.
Callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract, consisting of a flat
bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain.
The corpus callosum is only found in
placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure,
connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication
between them. It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain,
about ten centimetres in length and consisting of 200–300 million axonal
projections. A number of separate nerve tracts, classed as subregions of
the corpus callosum, connect different parts of the hemispheres. The main
ones are known as the genu, the rostrum, the trunk or body, and the
splenium.
Brain Injuries -
Strokes -
Left Hemisphere Brain
Damage -
Autism -
Thalamus
-
Dopamine -
Brain Food -
Brain Maintenance
Pingala is Left Brain Dominant and is associated with the sun. Ida is
the introverted, lunar nadi, and corresponds to the left side of the body
and the right side of the brain.
Left and Right Brain + Ida and Pingala Nadi.
Hemimegalencephaly is a rare neurological
condition in which one-half of the brain, or one side of the brain, is
abnormally larger than the other. The structure of the brain on the
affected side may be markedly abnormal or show only subtle changes.
Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep is sleep where
one half of the brain
rests while the other half remains alert.
Dualism.
People can be missing large chunks of their brains with no significant
ill-effect. One case was reported of a woman who is
missing her
cerebellum, a distinct structure found at the back of the brain. By some
estimates the human cerebellum contains half the brain cells you have.
This isn't just brain damage – the whole structure is absent. Yet this
woman lives a normal life; she graduated from school, got married and had
a kid following an uneventful pregnancy and birth. A pretty standard
biography for a 24-year-old. The cerebellum is sometimes known as the
“
little brain”. It represents about 10 per cent of the brain’s total
volume but contains 50 per cent of its neurons.
Dissociation in neuropsychology involves identifying the neural
substrate of a particular brain function through identification of case
studies, neuroimaging, or neuropsychological testing. Identify specialized
functions by comparing two patients. Double Dissociation is when two
related mental processes are shown to
function
independently of each other.
The brain has it's own type of
redundancy back up system. It's not an exact copy, but certain brain areas
share certain functions, so when one system fails or when one brain area
is injured, then the other brain area can take over certain processing
responsibilities.
Redundancy is the intentional duplication of critical components or
functions of a system with the goal of increasing reliability of the
system, usually in the form of a
backup or
fail-safe, or to improve actual system performance, such as in the
case of GNSS receivers, or multi-threaded computer processing.
We have one brain, with different halves, that function independently,
at the same time.
180
Regions of the Brain. The human cerebral cortex requires a map or
parcellation of its major subdivisions, known as cortical areas.
Right Side of Brain - Parallel Processing
Parallel Processing in psychology is the ability of the brain to
simultaneously process incoming stimuli of differing quality. This becomes
most important in
vision, as the
brain divides what it sees into four
components: color, motion, shape, and depth. These are individually
analyzed and then compared to stored memories, which helps the brain
identify what you are viewing. The brain then combines all of these
into the field of view that you see and comprehend. Parallel
processing
has been linked, by some experimental psychologists, to the
Stroop effect. This is a
continual and seamless operation.
Parallel Processing in DSP implementation is a technique duplicating
function units to operate different tasks (signals) simultaneously.
Accordingly, we can perform the same processing for different signals on
the corresponding duplicated function units. Further, due to the features
of parallel processing, the parallel DSP design often contains multiple
outputs, resulting in higher throughput than not parallel.
Parallel
Computing is a type of
computation in which many
calculations are carried out
simultaneously, or the execution of processes are carried out
simultaneously.
Parallel Angles -
Parallel Wiring -
Lineal Thinking
-
Multitasking -
Intelligence
In Parallel Processing
Systems, many
events may be considered and acted upon simultaneously. Since a
variety of actions may be considered
simultaneously, coherence
in behavior is an issue for parallel systems. A parallel system
may be synchronous, in which there is an explicit parallel
decision cycle or asynchronous. In asynchronous systems, there
are usually a set of
independent components which act
autonomously to one another; this makes coherence an even more
difficult problem. A parallel architecture does not necessarily
imply parallel processing; for instance, the human cognitive
architecture is inherently serial at the cognitive level even
though the biological band is explicitly parallel. However,
there may tremendous improvements to efficiency for some
parallel processing strategies, compared to serial ones.
umich.edu.
Spatial
intelligence -
Music
-
Creativity
More parallel 'traffic' observed in human brains than in other animals.
Brain signals are sent from a source to a target, establishing a
polysynaptic pathway that intersects multiple brain regions, like a
road with many stops along the way. In the non-human brains, information
was sent along a single "road," while in humans, there were multiple
parallel pathways between the same source and target.
Lateralization of Brain Function refers to how some
neural functions, or cognitive processes tend to be
more dominant in one
hemisphere than the other. (
Dual Brain Theory) The medial longitudinal fissure separates the
human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the
corpus callosum. Although the macrostructure of the two hemispheres
appears to be almost identical, different composition of neuronal networks
allows for specialized function that is different in each hemisphere.
Lateralization of brain structures is based on general trends expressed in
healthy patients; however, there are numerous counterexamples to each
generalization. Each human's brain develops differently leading to unique
lateralization in individuals. This is different from specialization as
lateralization refers only to the function of one structure divided
between two hemispheres. Specialization is much easier to observe as a
trend since it has a stronger anthropological history. The best example of
an established lateralization is that of Broca's and Wernicke's areas
where both are often found exclusively on the left hemisphere. These areas
frequently correspond to
handedness,
however, meaning that the localization of these areas is regularly found
on the hemisphere corresponding to the dominant hand (anatomically on the
opposite side). Function lateralization, such as semantics, intonation,
accentuation, and prosody, has since been called into question and largely
been found to have a neuronal basis in both hemispheres. Another example
is that each hemisphere in the brain tends to represent one side of the
body. In the cerebellum this is the same bodyside, but in the forebrain
this is predominantly the contralateral side.
Ambidextrous (using
both hands)
Asymmetry is the
lack of equality or the
lack of equivalence between parts or aspects of something. Asymmetry is the absence of
symmetry. The property of an object being invariant to a transformation,
such as reflection. The absence of violation of symmetry that are either
expected or desired can have important consequences for a system.
Symmetry is an important property of both
physical and abstract systems and it may be displayed in precise terms or
in more aesthetic terms.
Brain Asymmetry means that the brain has an overall leftward posterior
and rightward anterior asymmetry or brain torque. There are particularly
large asymmetries in the frontal, temporal and occipital lobes, which
increase in asymmetry in the antero-posterior direction beginning at the
central region. Brain asymmetry can refer to at least two quite distinct
findings.
Neuroanatomical differences between the
left and right sides of the brain, and Lateralized functional
differences and lateralization of brain function. Neuroanatomical differences themselves
exist on different scales, from neuronal densities, to the size of regions
such as the planum temporale, to—at the largest scale—the torsion or
"wind" in the human brain, reflected shape of the skull, which reflects a
backward (posterior) protrusion of the left occipital bone and a forward
(anterior) protrusion of the right frontal bone. In addition to gross size
differences, both neurochemical and structural differences have been found
between the hemispheres. Asymmetries appear in the spacing of cortical
columns, as well as dendritic structure and complexity. Larger cell sizes
are also found in layer III of Broca's area. The human brain has an
overall leftward posterior and rightward anterior asymmetry (or brain
torque). There are particularly large asymmetries in the frontal, temporal
and occipital lobes, which increase in asymmetry in the antero-posterior
direction beginning at the central region. Leftward asymmetry can be seen
in the Heschl gyrus, parietal operculum, Silvian fissure, left cingulate
gyrus, temporo-parietal region and planum temporale. Rightward asymmetry
can be seen in the right central sulcus (potentially suggesting increased
connectivity between motor and somatosensory cortices in the left side of
the brain), lateral ventricle, entorhinal cortex, amygdala and temporo-parieto-occipital
area. Sex-dependent brain asymmetries are also common. For example, human
male brains are more asymmetrically lateralized than those of females.
However, gene expression studies done by Hawrylycz and colleagues and
Pletikos and colleagues, were not able to detect asymmetry between the
hemispheres on the population level. People with autism have much more
symmetrical brains than people without it.
Telling Left from Right: Cilia as cellular force sensors during
embryogenesis. A new study now
reveals that cilia in the organizer function as sensors for mechanical
force exerted by flow to shape the
left-right body plan of the developing embryo. Although the
human body is externally symmetric
across the left-right axis, there are remarkable left-right asymmetries in
the shape and positioning of most internal organs including the heart,
lungs, liver, stomach, and brain. Left-right asymmetry is known to be
established during early embryogenesis by a small cluster of cells termed
the left-right organizer. Within this organizer, motile cilia, hair-like
structures on the cell surfaces, beat rapidly to create a leftward
directional flow of extracellular fluid, which is the first outward sign
of a left-right difference.
Central Sulcus
separates the parietal lobe from
the frontal lobe.
L-directed thinking and
R-directed thinking. The L-directed (left
brain–directed) thinking skills are sequential, literal,
functional, textual, and analytic—typically functions
believed to be performed by the left hemisphere of the
human brain.
The
R-directed (right brain–directed) thinking skills
are characterized as simultaneous, metaphorical,
aesthetic, contextual, and synthetic—typically functions
assigned to the right hemisphere of the brain.
Modularity of
Mind is the notion that a mind may, at least in part, be composed of
innate neural structures or modules which have distinct established
evolutionarily developed functions with different regions supporting
specific abilities.
Domain specificity:
modules only operate on certain kinds of inputs—they are specialized.
Informational encapsulation: modules need
not refer to other psychological systems in order to operate.
Obligatory firing: modules process in a
mandatory manner.
Fast speed: probably due
to the fact that they are encapsulated (thereby needing only to consult a
restricted database) and mandatory (time need not be wasted in determining
whether or not to process incoming input).
Shallow
outputs: the output of modules is very simple. Limited
accessibility.
Characteristic ontogeny:
there is a regularity of development. Fixed neural architecture. Brain
modules provide the basic building blocks from which larger, "intrinsic
connectivity networks" are constructed. Each network includes multiple
brain structures that are activated together when a person engages a
particular cognitive skill. Rather than forming permanent connections, we
are constantly updating our prior knowledge, but only if we continue to
keep learning and updating what we know, which most people don't, and most
assume that they are.
Evolutionary and heritable axes shape our brain. Every region has its
place in the brain. However, it has been unclear why brain regions are
located where they are. Now, scientists have defined two main axes along
which brain regions are genetically organized, stretching from posterior
to anterior and inferior to superior in the brain. These axes are mainly
shaped by genes and evolution.
Reptilian Brain
Cognitive Module is the modularity of mind and the closely
related society of
mind theory, a specialized tool or sub-unit that can be
used by other parts to resolve cognitive tasks.
List of Regions in the Human Brain (wiki)
Using a cappella to explain speech and music specialization. Study
suggests humans have developed complementary neural systems in each
hemisphere for auditory stimuli.
Song sounds are
processed simultaneously by two separate brain areas – one in the left
hemisphere and one in the right. On the
left side
you can decode the
speech content
but not the melodic content, and on the
right side
you can
decode the melodic content but not
the speech content.
Researchers Were Not Right About Left Brains, Study Suggests. Uniquely
human cognitive abilities may have evolved by adapting ancestral asymmetry
pattern. The left and right side of the brain are involved in different
tasks. This functional lateralization and associated brain asymmetry are
well documented in humans. The left and right side of our brain are
specialized for some cognitive abilities. For example, in humans, language
is processed predominantly in the left hemisphere, and the right hand is
controlled by the motor cortex in the left hemisphere.
Brain Maintenance 101 - Taking Care of Your Mind
All Schools need to Teach Students about proper Brain Maintenance.
Neurodegeneration
is the progressive loss of structure or function of
neurons, including
death of neurons.
Neural
Stem Cells.
Hippocampal Sclerosis is a
neuropathological
condition with severe neuronal cell loss and
gliosis
in the
hippocampus.
Alzheimer's -
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
-
Toxins -
Brain Injuries -
Microbial Balance -
Brain Proteins -
Cognition
-
Plasticity -
Neuron Genesis -
Wiring -
Brain Food -
Exercise -
Light
Synaptic Pruning
is the process of
synapse elimination that occurs between early childhood
and the onset of puberty in many mammals, including humans. Pruning starts
near the time of birth and is completed by the time of sexual maturation
in humans. At birth, the human brain consists of approximately 86 (± 8)
billion
neurons. The infant brain will increase in size by a factor of up
to 5 by adulthood. Two factors contribute to this growth: the growth of
synaptic connections between neurons, and the myelination of nerve fibers;
the total number of neurons, however, remains the same. Pruning is
influenced by
environmental factors and is widely thought to represent
learning. After adolescence, the volume of the
synaptic connections
decreases again due to synaptic pruning. Pruning is a function of the
brain that helps to minimize the number of connections to a specific
memory in order to
make that memory more efficient with less noise.
Pruning Plants also has benefits.
Pruning negative thoughts
can also have benefits. Clearing the cache in
working memory can help
free up neurons.
Nibbling Synapses: Glial cells eating of synapses may enhance
learning
and
memory. As our brains develop, cells within it 'eat' neuronal elements
to clear out debris, pathogens and help improve efficiency. A recent study
showed that
motor learning in mice helped enhance the engulfing of
synapses by
Bergmann glial cells. The discovery could
have possible implications for explaining why synaptic shrinkage and loss
occur in depression, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's disease. Synapses --
structures that allow neurons to pass signals to one another -- are
regularly pruned throughout a brain's development
to improve its efficiency. Disruption of this is thought to lead to
various brain disorders. Glial cells, non-neuronal cells occupying about
half of the brain, were previously believed to be like glue -- merely
filling the gap between neurons. However, recent findings show that glia
encode information in their own unique way. When cells engulf neighboring
cells to flush out debris and pathogens, it is called
phagocytosis. Phagocytosis by microglia, immune cells in the brain, in
damaged and diseased brain tissue has long been recognized. Recent reports
have established that astrocytes and microglia phagocytose neuronal
elements, including synapses during early brain development or when
dramatic neuronal network remodeling occurs in the diseased brain.
Scientists capture detailed snapshots of mouse brain cells nibbling on
neurons. 3D structures of cells and connections reveal new role for an
understudied brain cell. The surprising findings point to another
possible role for
oligodendrocyte precursor cells.
Immune system sculpts rat brains during development. Brain region size
controls behavior preferences in adult rats. Researchers have identified
the mechanism for why and how one brain region differs in size between
male and female rats. The study
found that immune system cells in the brains of females consume and digest
neurons to sculpt a region of the brain during development and that later
affects behavioral preferences in adulthood.
New study links placental oxygen levels to fetal brain development.
Researchers use MRI to show how health of placenta may influence childhood
cognition and behavior.
Toxins
-
Microbial Balance -
Parasites
Preventing brain damage in preterm babies. An interdisciplinary team
of physicians and scientists show for the first time that a blood protein
called fibrin blocks an essential biological process that drives brain
development in early life. They identified a root cause of developmental
delays that result from brain bleeds in premature infants, opening a path
for new therapeutic strategies to counter long-term health risks.
Exposure to heat and cold in early life may affect development of white
matter in the brain. Brain scans of more than 2,000 preadolescents
suggests that early life exposure to heat and cold may have lasting
effects on the microstructure of white matter in the brain, especially
when living in poorer neighborhoods. The study highlights the
vulnerability of fetuses and children to extreme temperatures.
Your brain ages at different paces according to social and physical
environments. Places with greater inequalities -- whether economic,
pollution or disease-based -- exhibited older brain ages.
Developmental crossroads in the brain. Study reveals how proteins
direct nerve cell precursors to turn into specialized neurons. Brain
development is a highly orchestrated process involving numerous parallel
and sequential steps. Many of these steps depend on the activation of
specific genes. A protein called MEIS2 plays a crucial role in this
process: it activates genes necessary for the formation of inhibitory
projection neurons. These neurons are vital for motion control and
decision-making. A
MEIS2 mutation, known from patients with severe intellectual
disability, was found to disrupt these processes. The study provides
valuable insights into brain development and consequences of
genetic
mutations.
Sequencing of the developing human brain uncovers hundreds of thousands of
new gene transcripts. New study could improve the ability to make
genetic diagnoses and treat neurodevelopmental disorders. Researchers
uncovered 214,516 unique isoforms in the developing neocortex -- over 70%
of which have not been previously studied.
Brain wiring is guided by activity even in very early development. In
humans, the process of learning is driven by different groups of cells in
the brain firing together. For instance, when the neurons associated with
the process of recognizing a dog begin to fire in a coordinated manner in
response to the cells that encode the features of a dog -- four legs, fur,
a tail, etc. -- a young child will eventually be able to identify dogs
going forward. But brain wiring begins before humans are born, before they
have experiences or senses like sight to guide this cellular circuitry.
How does that happen?
Brain development: extracellular vesicles facilitate cellular
communication. Extracellular vesicles are tiny bubbles released by
cells, acting as cargo vessels through which cells exchange signals and
thus communicate. A paper has demonstrated that this form of cellular
exchange also plays a key role in the development of the brain.
Extracellular Vesicles are lipid bilayer-delimited particles that are
naturally released from almost all types of cells but, unlike a cell,
cannot replicate.
Scientists discover breakthrough method to activate dormant stem cells in
the brain. Scientists have discovered a novel pathway to wake up
dormant neural stem cells, offering potential new therapies for
neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism, learning disabilities, and
cerebral palsy. The receptor protein named GPCR in neural stem cells then
responds to Fog secreted from astrocytes, activating the signalling
pathway that controls the formation of actin filaments in neural stem
cells. GPCRs have major roles in fundamental cell processes.
Scientists map networks regulating gene function in the human brain.
Research details the brain's cellular and molecular regulatory elements
and their impact on brain function.
Finding the sweet spot in brain development. Short-lived neural
connections in the mouse brain help prime sensory circuits, forever
affecting the mouse's sense of touch. Neuroscientists have discovered that
a receptor protein named mGluR1 helps regulate the timing of these
temporary connections. Their findings may help reveal the origins of
various neurodevelopmental disorders and new ways of treating them.
Neighborhood opportunities influence infant development and cognition.
Improving access to educational opportunities in communities may improve
children's language skills and cognitive development. Researchers find
that growing up in neighborhoods with more educational and socioeconomic
opportunities has a positive impact on infants' brain activity.
Exercise Benefits.
Fixing Rogue Brain Cells may hold key to preventing neuro-degeneration.
Researchers identify new therapeutic approach targeting
astrocytes, the brain’s most abundant cells.
Large-scale animal study links brain pH changes to wide-ranging cognitive
issues. Altered brain pH and lactate levels as a transdiagnostic
endophenotype in neuropsychiatric disorders with cognitive impairment.
New tool provides researchers with improved understanding of stem cell
aging in the brain. The UW-Madison team combined autofluorescence --
that natural light emission -- and sequencing genetic material in single
cells to study the behavior of neural stem cells.
Cerebral Atrophy
describes a loss of
neurons and the connections between them.
(space brain).
Atrophy is the partial or complete wasting away of a
part of the body.
Brain Size
(evolution)
Neurodevelopmental Disorders -
Toxins -
Processed Food
-
Body Burden -
Dumbed Down Education -
Misinformation
Decay Theory
proposes that
memory fades due to the mere
passage of time or from the lack of
recalling that memory. Information is therefore less available for
later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength,
wears away.
Glymphatic System is a system for
waste
clearance in the
central nervous system
of vertebrates. Also known as the glymphatic clearance pathway, or
paravascular system.
Brain Fog is when a
person experiences
confusion,
forgetfulness, absent-mindedness,
inability to focus,
easily distracted,
depression, feeling weird or
lacking mental clarity. Brain fog can be caused by eating
bad food or drinking
bad water,
overworking,
lack of sleep,
stress,
fatigue,
hormonal changes, lacking
vitamins, minerals and
omega 3's,
low sugar,
drugs or
alcohol,
smoking,
inflammation,
microbial imbalance,
not enough
exercise,
dehydration, and
viruses.
Cognitive Decline.
COVID-19 lockdowns prematurely aged teenage brains, study shows. New
research has found that lockdowns during the
COVID-19 pandemic
resulted in unusually accelerated brain maturation in adolescents. This
maturation was more pronounced in females. Adolescence, the period of
transition between childhood and adulthood, is marked by dramatic changes
in emotional, behavioral and social development. It's also a time when a
sense of self-identity, self-confidence and self-control are developed.
The pandemic reduced social interaction for teenagers and led to
documented reports of anxiety, depression and stress, especially for
girls.
Brain maturation is measured by the thickness of the cerebral cortex,
the outer layer of tissue in the brain. Chronic stress and adversity are
known to accelerate
cortical thinning.
Nerve Conduction Velocity is the speed at which an electrochemical
impulse propagates down a neural pathway. Conduction velocities are
affected by a wide array of factors, which include age, sex, and various
medical conditions. A nerve conduction velocity test a nerve conduction
study, measures how fast an electrical impulse moves through your nerve.
NCV can identify nerve damage. During the test, your nerve is stimulated,
usually with electrode patches attached to your skin. NCV is normally 50
to 70 m/second (Fig. 6‐6). Nerve damage slows the NCV at the point of
injury. Glucose Spike.
160 genes linked to brain shrinkage in study of 45,000 adults.
Comparison of genes and MRI results shows associations.
A cell therapy using myeloid cells bound to drug delivery microparticles
reduces disease burden in a preclinical multiple sclerosis model.
Multiple
sclerosis or MS is an
autoimmune disease that
destroys the protective
myelin covering around nerves. Every five minutes, someone is
diagnosed with the disease around the world, adding to about 2.8 million
individuals that currently have to live with it. Now researchers have
developed a cell therapy that leverages
myeloid
cells, the very type of
immune cells that cause MS-triggering nerve
inflammation in
patients. By attaching 'backpacks' loaded with anti-inflammatory drugs to
the cells, and infusing them into a mouse model of MS, they were able to
partially reverse paralysis and restore movement. Many cell therapies,
such as the famed
CAR-T cell
therapies, require the mobilization of immune cells from specific
tissue compartments in the body with drugs, genetic modification, and then
amplification over weeks outside of the body. Myeloid cells can be
directly retrieved using established methods and modified with backpacks
within hours, making the therapy more easily translatable. In addition,
some myeloid cell types possess the ability to traverse the blood-brain
barrier, which makes them particularly suitable for treating CNS diseases.
Neurodegeneration in myelin disease: No myelin is better than bad
myelin. Efficient removal of abnormal myelin allows
survival of nerve fibers targeted by adaptive immune cells, according to a
novel study. Myelin is an insulating sheath around axons -- the processes
connecting nerve cells -- that is mostly composed of lipids and proteins.
It enables rapid conduction of electrical signals and supports neuronal
integrity and function. In the central nervous system, myelin is formed by
specialized glial cells called
oligodendrocytes. Myelinated fiber tracts are particularly vulnerable
to various pathogenic processes and myelin diseases are often associated
with chronic inflammation of the
nervous system.
A prime example is multiple sclerosis, a serious and frequent neurological
disease in which immune cells drive demyelination, i.e., the loss of
myelin. However, maladaptive immune reactions also contribute to other
disorders associated with myelin defects, including hereditary and
aging-related diseases.
Brain Injuries.
Where neural stem cells feel at home. Researchers have created an
artificial cell environment that could promote the
regeneration of nerves. Usually,
injuries to
the brain or spinal cord don't heal easily due to the formation of
fluid-filled cavities and scars that prevent tissue
regeneration. One
starting point for medical research is therefore to fill the cavities with
a substance that offers neural stem cells optimal conditions for
proliferation and differentiation.
Reelin is a large
secreted extracellular matrix glycoprotein that helps regulate processes
of
neuronal migration and positioning in the developing brain by
controlling
cell to cell
interactions. Besides this important role in early development, reelin
continues to work in the adult brain. It modulates
synaptic plasticity by enhancing the induction and maintenance of
long-term potentiation. It also stimulates dendrite
and dendritic spine development and regulates the continuing migration of
neuroblasts generated in adult
neurogenesis sites
like the subventricular and subgranular zones. It is found not only in the
brain but also in the liver, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, fallopian tube,
breast and in comparatively lower levels across a range of anatomical
regions.
De-Aging the Virtual Brain: Computational
models used to identify key brain targets for stimulation and counter
brain aging. As the brain ages, it “
reorganizes”
itself, and its neurodynamics and the connections between neurons change
dramatically, often resulting in a decrease of cognitive functions.
Noninvasive
brain stimulation techniques, such as
applying electrical or magnetic currents, have recently emerged as
possible treatments for neurological and degenerative disorders,
contrasting and mitigating the natural effects of aging. Another way to
stimulate the brain is
learning about
the brain and everything that helps you to better understand yourself and
the world around you.
White Matter Hyperintensities -
Leukoaraiosis is a particular abnormal change in appearance of
white matter near the lateral ventricles. It is
often seen in aged individuals, but sometimes in young adults.
Alzheimer's.
Surprisingly simple model explains how brain cells organize and connect.
A new study by physicists and neuroscientists describes how connectivity
among neurons comes about through general principles of networking and
self-organization, rather than the biological features of an individual
organism. While the vast number of connections may seem random, networks
of brain cells tend to be dominated by a small number of connections that
are much
stronger than most. Despite the
importance of these strong connections, scientists were unsure if this
heavy-tailed pattern arises because of biological processes specific to
different organisms, or due to basic principles of network organization.
Neurons sometimes disconnect and rewire with each other -- weak
connections are pruned, and stronger connections can be formed elsewhere.
Crystalized Intelligence.
Study finds strongest evidence to date of brain's ability to compensate
for age-related cognitive decline. Scientists have found the strongest
evidence yet that our brains can compensate for age-related deterioration
by recruiting other areas to help with brain function and maintain
cognitive performance.
New compound from blessed thistle promotes functional nerve regeneration.
Blessed thistle or
Cnicus benedictus is a plant in the family Asteraceae. For centuries,
it has been used as a medicinal herb as an extract or tea, e.g. to aid the
digestive system. Researchers have now found a completely novel use for
Cnicin. Animal models as well as human cells have shown that Cnicin
significantly accelerates axon (nerve fibers) growth.
I think that the
grey matter in the adolescent brain declines mostly because
of our
inadequate education system rather then it just being the
normal process of
Neuron Pruning. Synaptic pruning is a little to close to a
lobotomy or
frontotemporal dementia. And you can't say that it's a
normal process when the process itself hasn't been
clearly defined.
This is not to say that
we
forget things that are no longer
perceived to be
important to us, it's just that deciding what's important to
remember is not clearly defined. The
Prefrontal Cortex also tends to lose volume with age, but
age can't be the only factor? This type of
Atrophy should not be happening, it's not a
Frontal Lobe Disorder,
it's more of an
Education Disorder. Education should be about preserving brain
matter,
not decreasing it. Does
neurogenesis
slow down when
learning slows down? We're fully aware of the
plasticity of the
brain and it's ability to repair and rewire itself. So it seems like we
just got here yesterday.
It's not so much the
aging
brain,
it's more about the long term abuse that accumulates from eating
bad food,
from the lack of
sleep, from the lack of
exercise, from the lack of
learning, and from the exposure
to
chemicals and
toxins in our environment.
Academic education can positively affect aging of the brain. The
benefits of
good
education and
lifelong learning
extend into old age. The initial findings of a long-term study show that
certain degenerative processes are reduced
in the brains of academics. Their brains are better able to compensate
age-related cognitive and neural limitations.
You make more mistakes when your tired or suffer from the
lack of
sleep. The brain needs to be
rested and healthy in order to maximize its
function and capabilities. And it's not just the lack of sleep that will
lower your awareness and
lower your IQ, it is also the lack of healthy
food and nutrition that can have negatives effects on your brain power.
And there is also one more thing that will impeded your thinking, and that
is knowledge and information. And without knowledge and information, a
rested and healthy brain is just about useless.
Long-Term
Depression is an activity-dependent reduction in the efficacy of
neuronal synapses lasting hours or longer following
a long patterned
stimulus.
New Molecules Reverse Memory Loss Linked to Depression, Aging. The
molecules are chemical tweaks of benzodiazepines, a class of anti-anxiety
and sedative medications that also activate the GABA system, but are not
highly targeted.
Memory loss reversed or abated in those with cognitive decline.
Researchers sought to determine whether a comprehensive and personalized
program, designed to mitigate risk factors of Alzheimer's disease could
improve cognitive and metabolic function in individuals experiencing
cognitive decline. Findings provided evidence that this approach can
improve risk factor scores and stabilize cognitive function.
Source of remarkable memory of 'superagers' revealed. 'Superagers' who
performed a challenging
memory task in an MRI
scanner were able to learn and recall new information as well as
25-year-old participants. Neurons in the visual cortex of brains of
superaging older adults retain their selective and efficient ability to
process visual stimuli and create a distinct memory of the images. In the
future, interventions to
train specific areas of the brain
to be more efficient may enable normal aging adults to enhance memory
and other
cognitive functions.
Platelets can replicate the benefits of exercise in the brain.
Researchers have found an injection of a specific blood factor can
replicate the benefits of exercise in the brain. They've discovered that
platelets secrete a protein, exerkine CXCL4/Platelet factor 4 or PF4, that
rejuvenates neurons in aged mice in a similar way to physical exercise.
This protein, which is released from platelets after exercise, results in
regenerative and cognitive improvements when injected into aged mice.
Scientists discover external protein network can help stabilize neural
connections. The Noelin family of secreted proteins bind to the
external portion of AMPA glutamate receptors and stabilize them on the
neuronal cellular membrane, a process necessary for transmission of
full-strength signals between neurons, according to a new study. The
Noelin family of secreted proteins bind to the external portion of AMPA
glutamate receptors and stabilize them on the neuronal cellular membrane,
a process necessary for transmission of full-strength signals between
neurons. Without this external, stabilizing protein network, the AMPA
receptors are no longer retained at the synapse, leading to weak,
short-lived synaptic signals. The findings not only provide insight into
processes such as learning and memory but also the development of blinding
conditions like glaucoma.
SuperAger is someone in their
80s or older who exhibits
cognitive function that is comparable to that of an average middle-aged
individual. Additionally, this group has been shown to exhibit less
brain volume loss.
Programmed Cell Death is the death of a
Cell in any form,
mediated by an
intracellular program.
Concussions (injuries) -
Blood
Brain Barrier
Frontal
Lobe Disorder is an impairment of the frontal lobe that occurs due to
disease or head trauma.
Researchers map genetic ‘switches’ behind human brain evolution. UCLA
researchers have developed the first map of gene regulation in human
neurogenesis, the process by which neural stem cells turn into brain cells
and the cerebral cortex expands in size. Chromosomal folding patterns
affect how genetic information is encoded.
For older adults, a better diet may prevent brain shrinkage. People
who eat a
diet rich in
vegetables, fruit, nuts and
fish may have bigger brains.
Secrets of brain development. A subset of neurons related to memory
and neuroplasticity continue to migrate into the brain through
toddlerhood. The new research suggests that a subset of inhibitory neurons
within the entorhinal cortex, or EC -- an area of the brain essential for
forming memories -- continue to migrate into this region where they build
new neuronal connections from birth through toddlerhood.
Diseases affect brain's networks selectively, BrainMap analysis affirms.
Researchers studied 43 brain disorders and strongly affirmed a theory
called the 'network degeneration hypothesis.' This theory holds that
disease-related structural damage invades functional networks used in
human behavior and often repeats in 'co-alteration networks.' The brain
possesses a complex architecture of functional networks as its
information-processing machinery. Is the brain's network architecture
itself a target of disease? If so, which networks are associated with
which diseases? What can this tell us about the underlying causes of brain
disorders? Atrophy or hypertrophy of
gray matter follows network-based
principles. Neurological diseases have stronger network associations than
psychiatric diseases. Some diseases have more diffuse effects across
networks than others. Huntington's disease, for example, affects nine
networks and schizophrenia affects seven, whereas major depressive
disorder and bipolar disorder affect two each.
Researchers map converging trajectories of cognitive development through
adolescence. Cognitive
skills
underlying the
ability to plan,
switch from task to
task and resist tempting
distractions usually
matures by the time an individual turns
18 years old, a new study
says.
New imaging method illuminates oxygen's journey in the brain. A new
bioluminescence imaging technique has created highly detailed, and
visually striking, images of the movement of oxygen in the brains of mice.
The method, which can be easily replicated by other labs, will enable
researchers to more precisely study forms of hypoxia in the brain, such as
the denial of oxygen to the brain that occurs during a stroke or heart
attack. The new research tool is already providing insight into why a
sedentary lifestyle may increase risk for diseases like Alzheimer's.
Team builds better tool for assessing infant brain health. Researchers
have created a new, open-access tool that allows doctors and scientists to
evaluate infant brain health by assessing the concentration of various
chemical markers, called metabolites, in the brain. The tool compiled data
from 140 infants to determine normal ranges for these metabolites.
Metabolites play an important role in normal brain growth, development and
function. Assessing metabolites in the brain normally involves proton
magnetic resonance spectroscopy, a technology that uses an MRI not for
visual imaging but to detect and identify specific molecules in the
tissues of interest. The most common approach requires extensive imaging
and detailed calculations of the amount of water inside and outside brain
tissues to standardize these measures, a costly and time-consuming approach.
Brain Growth - Brains Natural Defenses
Neurogenesis is
the process by which
neurons are generated from
neural stem cells and progenitor cells. Through precise genetic mechanisms
of cell fate determination, many different varieties of excitatory and
inhibitory neurons are generated from different kinds of neural stem
cells. Neurogenesis occurs during embryogenesis in all animals and is
responsible for producing all the neurons of the organism. Prior to the
period of neurogenesis, neural stem cells first multiply until the correct
number of
progenitor cells is achieved.
Angiogenesis is
the physiological process through which new
blood vessels form from
pre-existing vessels.
Brain Food -
Exercise -
DNA Defenses -
Stem Cells -
Plasticity -
Regeneration -
Neural Pruning -
Brain Injuries
Neuroregeneration involves the regrowth or repair of nervous tissues,
cells or cell products. Neuroregenerative mechanisms may include
generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin, or synapses.
Hippocampus stem cells. New
experiences guide cells in the hippocampus known as
radial-glial neural stem cells to divide to
make new neurons and other types of cells involved in forming
memories.
The brain reaches 80% of its maximum size by age
3. The volume of
gray matter, which represents
brain cells, peaks before age 6 in most people. The volume of
white matter — a way of measuring the
connections between brain cells — peaks before age 29 in most people. The
loss of white matter accelerates after age 50 in some
people.
A simple combination of molecules converts cells neighboring damaged
neurons into functional new neurons, which could potentially be used
to treat stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and
brain
injuries.
Ependyma is the thin
neuroepithelial lining of the ventricular system of the brain and the
central canal of the spinal cord, made up of ependymal cells. Ependyma is
one of the four types of
neuroglia in the central
nervous system (CNS). It is involved in the production of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF), and is shown to serve as a reservoir for
neuroregeneration.
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor is a
protein that, in humans, is
encoded by the
BDNF gene. BDNF is a member of the neurotrophin family of
growth factors, which are related to the canonical Nerve Growth Factor.
Neurotrophic factors are found in the brain and the periphery.
BDNF acts on certain neurons of the
central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system, helping to support
survival of existing neurons, and encouraging growth and differentiation
of new neurons and synapses. In the brain, it is active in the
hippocampus, cortex, and basal forebrain—areas vital to learning, memory,
and higher thinking. BDNF is also expressed in the retina, kidney, saliva,
prostate, motor neurons and skeletal muscle. BDNF itself is important for
long-term memory. Although the vast majority of neurons in the mammalian
brain are formed prenatally, parts of the adult brain retain the ability
to grow new neurons from neural stem cells in a process known as
neurogenesis. Neurotrophins are
proteins that help to stimulate and control
neurogenesis, BDNF being one of the most active. Mice born without the
ability to make BDNF suffer developmental defects in the brain and sensory
nervous system, and usually die soon after birth, suggesting that BDNF
plays an important role in normal neural development. Other important
neurotrophins structurally related to BDNF include NT-3, NT-4, and NGF.
BDNF is made in the endoplasmic reticulum and secreted from dense-core
vesicles. It binds carboxypeptidase E (CPE), and the disruption of this
binding has been proposed to cause the loss of sorting of BDNF into
dense-core vesicles. The phenotype for BDNF knockout mice can be severe,
including postnatal lethality. Other traits include sensory neuron losses
that affect coordination, balance, hearing, taste, and breathing. Knockout
mice also exhibit cerebellar abnormalities and an increase in the number
of sympathetic neurons.
Certain types of physical
exercise have been shown to markedly (threefold) increase BDNF
synthesis in the human brain, a phenomenon which is partly responsible for
exercise-induced neurogenesis and improvements in cognitive function.
Niacin appears to upregulate BDNF and tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB)
expression as well.
Nerve Growth Factor is a neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide
primarily involved in the regulation of growth, maintenance,
proliferation, and survival of certain target neurons. It is perhaps the
prototypical growth factor, in that it was one of the first to be
described. Numerous biological processes involving NGF have been
identified, two of them being the survival of pancreatic beta cells and
the regulation of the immune system.
Neurotrophin are a family of
proteins that
induce the
survival,
development, and function of
neurons. They belong to
a class of growth factors, secreted proteins that
can signal particular cells to survive, differentiate, or grow.
Growth factors such as neurotrophins that promote the survival of neurons
are known as neurotrophic factors. Neurotrophic factors are secreted by
target tissue and act by preventing the associated neuron from initiating
programmed cell death
– allowing the neurons to survive. Neurotrophins also induce
differentiation of
progenitor cells, to form neurons. Although the vast majority of
neurons in the mammalian brain are formed prenatally, parts of the adult
brain (for example, the hippocampus) retain the ability to grow new
neurons from
neural stem
cells, a process known as neurogenesis. Neurotrophins are chemicals
that help to stimulate and control neurogenesis.
Neurotrophic
Factors are a family of biomolecules – nearly all of which are
peptides or small proteins – that support the growth, survival, and
differentiation of both developing and mature neurons.
How do adult brain circuits regulate new neuron production?
Researchers identified a brain circuit that controls neuron development in
the adult brain. It runs from near the front of the brain back to the
hippocampus, a learning- and
memory-related structure. Neurogenesis in the
Dentate Gyrus occurs throughout
adult life and supports the hippocampus's crucial functions in storing and
retrieving memories. Genesis of new neurons does not stop at birth or even
in childhood. In a few select areas of the brain, it can continue
throughout adulthood, and is believed to be vitally important for certain
forms of learning and memory, and in mood regulation.
Older adults grow just as many new brain cells as young people. The
generation of new neurons in the DG neurogenic niche starts from quiescent
radial-glia-like type I neural progenitor cells (QNPs) expressing glial
fibrillary acid protein (GFAP), sex determining region Y-box 2 (Sox2),
brain lipid-binding protein (BLBP), and nestin (Encinas et al., 2011).
DNA Repair
Scientists Discover the Mathematical Rules underpinning Brain Growth.
Life is rife with patterns. It's common for living things to create a
repeating series of similar features as they grow: think of feathers that
vary slightly in length on a bird's wing or shorter and longer petals on a
rose. Each neuron is surrounded by roughly a dozen neighbors similar to
itself, but that interspersed among them are other kinds of neurons. This
unique arrangement means that no single neuron sits flush against its
twin, while still allowing different types of complementary neurons to be
close enough to work together to complete tasks.
Charting the developing brain. How networks form. Researchers use
connectomic mapping in the developing cortex to
uncover the developmental wiring rules for inhibitory
neurons.
Structure of crucial receptor in brain development, function. OHSU
scientists elucidate structure of receptors targeted by antidepressants,
other pharmaceutical drugs; could lead to improved therapies. Scientists
have revealed the molecular structure of a type of receptor that's crucial
to brain development and function. 'This study shows the dominant
assemblies and states of the GABA receptor. That's really the huge
breakthrough -- nobody had been able to figure out which of the hundreds
of thousands of these assemblies are most highly populated,' said the
senior author.
Scientists pinpoint what makes brain cells develop in a specific order.
A study of the visual system of fruit flies reveals factors regulating
neuron development and uncovers similarities with human
brain development.
The human brain is composed of 80 billion neurons. These nerve cells
differ in their form, function, and
connectivity with other neurons to
form
neural networks. This complexity allows the brain to perform its many
functions, from controlling speech and vision to storing memories and
generating emotions.
New insights on brain development sequence through adolescence. Brain
maturation
sequence renders youth
sensitive to environmental impacts through adolescence.
Brain development does not occur uniformly across the brain, but
follows a newly identified developmental
sequence, according to a new study. Brain regions that support
cognitive, social, and emotional functions appear to remain
malleable -- or capable of changing, adapting,
and remodeling -- longer than other brain regions, rendering youth
sensitive to socioeconomic environments through adolescence.
Astrocytes as neural stem cells in the adult brain. In the adult
mammalian brain, bona fide neural
stem cells were discovered in the subventricular zone (SVZ), the largest neurogenic niche lining the
striatal wall of the lateral ventricles of the brain. In this region
resides a subpopulation of
astrocytes that express the
glial fibrillary
acidic protein (GFAP), nestin and carbohydrate Lewis X (LeX).
Astonishingly, these GFAP-expressing progenitors display stem-cell-like
features both in vivo and in vitro. Throughout life SVZ astrocytes give
rise to interneurons and oligodendrocyte precursors, which populate the
olfactory bulb and the white matter, respectively. The role of the
progenies of SVZ astrocytes has not been fully elucidated, but some
evidence indicates that the new neurons play a role in olfactory
discrimination, whereas oligodendrocytes contribute to myelinate white
matter tracts. In this chapter, we describe the astrocytic nature of adult
neural stem cells, their organization into the SVZ and some of their
molecular and genetic characteristics.
Brain stem cells divide over months. Scientists have been able to
observe the way
stem cells
in the adult brains of mice divide over the course of months to create new
nerve cells. Their study shows that brain stem cells are active over a
long period, and thus provides new insights that will feed into stem cell
research. Stem cells create new nerve cells in the brain over the entire
life span. One of the places this happens is the
hippocampus, a region of the brain
that plays a significant role in many learning processes. A reduction in
the number of newly formed nerve cells has been observed, for example, in
the context of depression and Alzheimer's disease, and is associated with
reduced memory performance in these conditions.
Cognitive Reserve
describes the mind's resistance to damage of the brain. The
mind's resilience is evaluated behaviorally, whereas the neuropathological
damage is evaluated histologically, although damage may be estimated using
blood-based markers and imaging methods.
Cognitive Off-Loading -
Brain Chip
-
Stimulation Cognitive Science
-
Cognition Tests -
Placebos
Brain
Health (University of Texas at Dallas)
Long-Term
Potentiation is a persistent strengthening of
synapses based on recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of
synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal
transmission between two neurons. The opposite of LTP is long-term
depression, which produces a long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength.
Neuromodulation
is the physiological process by which a given neuron uses one or more
chemicals to regulate diverse populations of
neurons.
This is in contrast to classical synaptic transmission, in which one
presynaptic neuron directly influences a single postsynaptic partner.
Neuromodulators secreted by a small group of neurons diffuse through large
areas of the nervous system, affecting multiple neurons. Major
neuromodulators in the central nervous system include dopamine, serotonin,
acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine.
New Brain Networks come online during
adolescence, allowing teenagers to develop more complex adult social
skills that prepare teenagers for adult life. Brain regions that are
important for more advanced social skills, such as being able to imagine
how someone else is thinking or feeling called theory of mind. Connections
that were initially weak became stronger, and connections that were
initially strong became weaker.
Perineuronal Net are specialized extracellular
matrix structures responsible
for synaptic stabilization in the adult brain.
Extracellular Matrix is a collection of extracellular
molecules secreted by cells that provides structural and biochemical
support to the surrounding cells.
Hemispherectomy is a very rare surgical procedure in which
one
cerebral hemisphere (half of the brain) is
removed, disconnected, or disabled.
Cognitive Module -
Modularity of
Mind
Mild
Cognitive Impairment is a brain function syndrome involving
the onset and evolution of
cognitive impairments beyond those expected
based on the age and education of the individual, but which are not
significant enough to interfere with their daily activities.
Neuro-Inflammation is inflammation of the nervous tissue.
Inflammatory Response System -
Inflammation -
Blood Brain Barrier
Neuroimmunology is to further develop our understanding of
the pathology of certain neurological diseases.
Depression -
Sleep
Cytokine category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) that are
important in cell signaling. Their release has an effect on the behaviour
of cells around them.
IL-2 Receptor is a heterotrimeric protein expressed on the
surface of certain immune cells, such as lymphocytes, that binds and
responds to a cytokine called IL-2.
Acetylcholine is an organic chemical that functions in the
brain and body of many types of animals, including humans, as a
neurotransmitter—a chemical released by nerve cells to send signals to
other cells.
Anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous
system.
Meditation -
Brain
Food -
Consuming
Knowledge
Neuron Pruning is similar to a computer when a person
deletes old computer files. Brain cells are
programed to die if not used, which makes room for more cell
growth. Brilliant!
Changing Old Habits
(programming)
Pruning Decision Trees is a technique in
machine learning that reduces the size of decision trees by removing
sections of the tree that provide little power to classify instances.
Pruning reduces the complexity of the final classifier, and hence improves
predictive accuracy by the
reduction of overfitting.
Modular Segregation of Structural Brain Networks Supports the Development
of Executive Function in Youth. A study of nearly 900 young people
ages 8 to 22 found that the ability to control impulses, stay on task and
make good decisions increased steadily over that span as the brain
remodeled its information pathways to become more efficient. The finding
helps explain why these abilities, known collectively as executive
function, take so long to develop fully.
This is
mostly because people don't get a high quality education in order for this
natural process to be effective. The human brain is organized into
large-scale functional modules that have been shown to evolve in childhood
and adolescence. However, it remains unknown whether the underlying white
matter architecture is similarly refined during development, potentially
allowing for improvements in
executive function.
Structural network modules become more segregated by
learning valuable knowledge, with weaker
connections between modules and stronger connections within modules.
Evolving modular topology facilitates global network efficiency and is
driven by
Learning that helps strengthen
the hub edges present both within and between modules. Critically, both
modular segregation and network efficiency are associated with enhanced
executive performance and mediate the improvement of executive functioning
with age. Together, results delineate a process of structural network
maturation that supports executive function in youth.
Phagocytosis is involved in the acquisition of nutrients for
some cells. The process is homologous to eating at the level of
single-celled organisms; in multicellular animals, the process has been
adapted to eliminate debris and pathogens, as opposed to taking in fuel
for cellular processes, except in the case of the animal Trichoplax.
Microglia are a type of glial cell located throughout the
brain and spinal cord. Account for 10–15% of all cells found within the
brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act as the first and main
form of active
immune defense in
the
central nervous system (CNS).
Neuronal Hyperactivity Disturbs ATP Microgradients, Impairs
Microglial Motility, and Reduces Phagocytic Receptor Expression
Triggering Apoptosis/Microglial Phagocytosis Uncoupling.
We are Born with 100 Billion Neurons in our
Brain and
spinal cord. During the early years following birth, humans
manufacture an estimated 250,000 neurons per minute, and then
spend the next few years wiring them together. We also lose
thousands of neurons everyday, but we have the ability to make
the remaining neurons form connections with beneficial
counterparts. It seems that some neurons never die, giving us
the ability to hold on to memories that are important to us.
Even as we grow old into adulthood,
the human brain makes hundreds of new neurons everyday all
through life, mostly in the
hippocampus, a key region for
memory.
Old
Memories are
not deleted even when they are not recalled for years.
Amnesia does
not mean memories are deleted, just the files have been
misplaced.
Benjaman Kyle
Canadian man missing for 30 years remembers real identity
Billions of neuronal connections are made in the human brain in
early childhood; some can only be made during this period, and
others require much more training to achieve the same result
later in life, although the
brain’s plasticity
ensures that it never stops learning.
Brain Connector density is at its highest level in the first
three years of lifeEarly
Childhood Learning
The
Brain Drain starts with an
ineffective education that ends with
people not knowing what to do, or where to go.
Brain Maintenance Responsibilities
Maintaining our physical and mental wellbeing is one of our most
important
responsibilities. But like all things, we have to
learn how this responsibility is performed.
If you're not using it, you're losing it.
The Brain is a machine that needs maintenance. Maintaining
skills and
abilities at a proficient level needs exercise. Just
like all muscles, muscles become weak when you stop using them.
And neuron connections in the brain become weaker when you stop
using them.
So what would be the perfect brain exercises that you can do to
maximize your cognitive ability and stay sharp?
What are the most effective and efficient ways to maintain
optimum physical and mental wellbeing?
Brain
Food
What are the
physical exercises people must do in order to maintain
physical and mental strength?
Caudate Nucleus
plays important roles in various other nonmotor functions as well,
including
procedural learning, associative
learning, and executive functions (e.g., inhibitory control), among other
functions. The caudate is also one of the brain structures which compose
the reward system and functions as part of the cortico–basal
ganglia–thalamic loop.
Reading is extremely important, but just don't read anything.
People who tell others to read anything are ignorant, and they
are
misleading you. Don't just read anything.
Consume the most valuable knowledge and information that you
can find. Learn the
right things at the right time. In order to
become more knowledgeable about yourself and the world around
you, you need to carefully choose what to read, and know how to
apply new knowledge and information to the knowledge and
information you have gained in previous years of your life. And
you also must understand that
most of what
you read and hear is not relevant.
Comprehension is extremely valuable skill, but that skill is
wasted if you never read valuable knowledge and information.
Humans only use
10% of their Brains is just a metaphor that resembles our
failing education system. People don't have enough knowledge and
information that would give them the ability to use the full
power of the human brain.
MRI's show that only certain
areas of the brain show activity during certain actions.
The adult brain makes new neurons, but only in very restricted
areas. For example, the hippocampus of an adult rat makes
between 5,000-10,000 new neurons each day. Joe Herbert’s lab in
Cambridge has showed that
cortisol dramatically decreases the
rate new brain cells are made. So perhaps some of the adverse
effects of
stress
are related to fewer brain cells being created in the
hippocampus. Did you know that people with
O Blood Type have more gray matter in their brain?
Computational Neuroscience
Artificial Neural Network
-
Default Mode Network
Brain Plasticity -
Brain
Food
Maybe this type of brain damage is from
endocrine disruptors or maybe even
Fluoride? Hey you never know, better safe then sorry. Either way it's still an education problem.
Toxins and Child Development
Endocrine Disruptor
are chemicals that, at certain doses, can interfere with endocrine (or
hormone) systems. These
disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other
developmental disorders. Any system in the body controlled by hormones can
be derailed by hormone disruptors. Specifically, endocrine disruptors may
be associated with the development of learning disabilities, severe
attention deficit disorder,
cognitive and brain development problems; deformations of the body
(including limbs); breast cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid and other
cancers; sexual development problems such as feminizing of males or
masculinizing effects on females, etc.
Pesticides -
Body Burden
Processed Food Dangers -
Drug Use Dangers
Smart
Drugs Dangers -
Cognition Measuring
Synaptic
Noise refers to the constant bombardment of synaptic
activity in
neurons.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor are chemicals that inhibit the
activity of the
monoamine oxidase enzyme family.
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential is a kind of synaptic
potential that makes a postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an
action potential.
Lateral Lemniscus is a tract of axons in the brainstem that
carries information about sound from the cochlear nucleus to various
brainstem nuclei and ultimately the contralateral inferior colliculus of
the midbrain.
Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5 is a G protein-coupled
receptor that in humans is encoded by the GRM5 gene.
Donepezil is a medication used in the palliative treatment
of
Alzheimer's disease.
Agmatine
is a chemical substance which is naturally created from the chemical
arginine. Agmatine has been shown to exert modulatory action at multiple
molecular targets, notably: neurotransmitter systems, ion channels, nitric
oxide (NO) synthesis and polyamine metabolism and this provides bases for
further research into potential applications.
Exercise and Training Increases Size of Hippocampus and Improves Memory
45 minutes of
exercise three days a week
can actually increase the volume of the brain. Even for
people who have been very
sedentary, exercise improves cognition
and helps people perform better on things like planning,
scheduling, multitasking and working
memory. Increased
hippocampal volume is associated with greater serum levels of
BDNF, a mediator of neurogenesis in the
Dentate Gyrus.
Brain Function Examination -
Basic Brain Maintenance for Adults (PDF)
Memory
Exercises
-
Brain Games -
Learning Toys
Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor -
Growth Differentiation Factor (GDF11)
Regenerative Biology is the process of renewal, restoration,
and growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient
to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage.
Socially-induced brain ‘fertilization’: play promotes brain
derived neurotrophic factor transcription in the amygdala and
dorsolateral frontal cortex in juvenile rats.
Prosocial foundations of children's academic achievement.
Enhancing Cognition
Klotho is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the KL
gene. This gene encodes a type-I membrane protein that is related to β-glucuronidases.
Reduced production of this protein has been observed in patients with
chronic renal failure (CRF), and this may be one of the factors underlying
the degenerative processes.
Cell Reports.
Synaptic GluN2B is a protein that in humans is encoded by
the GRIN2B gene.
NMDA Receptor is a glutamate receptor and ion channel
protein found in nerve cells. It is activated when glutamate and glycine
(or D-serine) bind to it, and when activated it allows positively charged
ions to flow through the cell membrane. The NMDA receptor is very
important for controlling synaptic plasticity and memory function.
Zygosity is the degree of similarity of the alleles for a
trait in an organism. Most eukaryotes have two matching sets of
chromosomes; that is, they are diploid. Diploid organisms have the same
loci on each of their two sets of homologous chromosomes, except that the
sequences at these loci may differ between the two chromosomes in a
matching pair and that a few chromosomes may be mismatched as part of a
chromosomal
sex-determination
system. If both alleles of a diploid organism are the same, the
organism is homozygous at that locus. If they are different, the organism
is heterozygous at that locus. If one allele is missing, it is hemizygous,
and, if both alleles are missing, it is nullizygous.
Plasticity
-
Learning
-
Cognitive
Brain
Secret For Instant Genius (youtube)
Think of your brain as being like a car. A well maintained
car is reliable and hardly ever breaks down. If you put in
good gas, it runs better and goes faster. If you constantly
make improvements to your car by learning about all the new
technological
advancements that are available, then your brain, or car,
will be a high performance machine with more capabilities.
Brain Memory Capacity -
Spatial Intelligence
"If your brain becomes Hard Wired and Cemented in Place,
that means you have stopped learning, which is very dangerous in
todays world, physically and mentally. " (Keep Learning my
Friends)
Plasticity -
The
Jennifer Aniston Neuron (youtube)
- Funny Joke
"When I here about research that has not included people
with disabilities, the research raises more questions then it
answers.
There is a lot we can learn from blind people, deaf people and
anyone with a disability."
I see a day when we will be able to communicate with the cells
in our own bodies without having to use drugs. We already know
how to manipulate
stem
cells manually, but one day soon we will be able to tell the
stem cells in our bodies to repair things that are causing us
problems. We can already
manipulate
atoms into a language, so it's just a matter of time that we
will discover the language of our cells, and be able to
communicate with them and give them special instructions when
needed.
The Human Brain makes up only 2% mass in the body but uses
20% of the bodies oxygen and calories.
Feed
Me Seymore, but this time
Feed me information and knowledge, please!
The brain processes 400 Billion bits of information a second.
BUT, we are ONLY aware of 2,000 of those?"
-Dr. Joseph Dispenza, D.C. The average "clock speed"
of neurons in the brain is a mere 200 firings per second.
10 Mbits of information are transmitted along each optic nerve
PER SECOND. But is transmission speed the same thing as
processing speed? Brain processes data no faster than 60 bits
per second? The brain processes around 0.1 quadrillion
information bytes per second? The human body sends 11 million
bits per second to the brain for processing, yet the conscious
mind seems to be able to process only 50 bits per second? It
appears that a tremendous amount of compression is taking place
if 11 million bits are being reduced to less than 50. Note that
the discrepancy between the amount of information being
transmitted and the amount of information being processed is so
large that any inaccuracy in the measurements is insignificant.
What Each
Human Senses Processes?
eyes - 10,000,000 bits per second.
skin - 1,000,000 bits per second.
ears - 100,000 bits per second.
smell - 100,000 bits per second.
taste - 1,000 bits per second.
Smart Brain Tech -
Brain Master -
Mind Modulations -
Mind Update
-
Mind and Life
-
Child Mind
Brain Documentaries
(films)
Mensa.
Identify and foster human
intelligence for the benefit of humanity, to encourage
research
in the nature, characteristics and uses of intelligence,
and to promote stimulating intellectual and social
opportunities
for its members.
Gifted
-
Defining Intelligence
Brain Games -
Educational Toys
N-back task is a continuous performance task that is
commonly used as an assessment in cognitive neuroscience to measure a part
of working memory and working memory capacity.
Memory.
Resources for Brain Fitness:
Mind Stretchers -
Changing Minds -
Cogni
Fit -
The Mental Fitness Center -
Posit Science -
Cog Med -
Your Amazing Brain -
Brain
Connection
-
Mind Institute -
Mind Research -
The Mind Institute
-
Sharp Brains -
Center for Brain Health
-
Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences.
Incredible Years -
Parents, Teachers & Children Training.
Sleep
-
Memory
-
Awareness
-
Meditation
-
Hypnosis
-
Counseling -
Therapy.
Physical Exercises
can be designed to improve certain parts of the body. Brain exercises
should also be designed in the same way. So the brain exercise will also
be a test as well as a quick way to run a systems check. So what Brain
Functions do you think you need to exercise and check.
Neuroscience - Cognitive Neuroscience
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the
nervous
system.
Neurobiology is the study of
cells
of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional
circuits that process
information and mediate
behavior.
Nerve is an
enclosed,
cable-like bundle of
axons (nerve fibers,
the long and slender projections of
neurons) in the
peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the
electrochemical nerve
impulses that are
transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral
organs. In the central nervous system, the analogous structures are known
as
tracts. Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is
potentially misleading since many neurons do not form nerves, and nerves
also include non-neuronal Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin.
Each nerve is a cordlike structure containing bundles of axons. Within a
nerve, each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the
endoneurium. The axons are bundled together into groups called
fascicles, and each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective
tissue called the
perineurium. Finally, the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of
connective tissue called the epineurium. Nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers
running to various organs and tissues of the body.
Computational Neuroscience is the study of brain function in terms of
the information processing properties of the structures that make up the
nervous system. It is an interdisciplinary science that links the diverse
fields of neuroscience, cognitive science, and psychology with electrical
engineering, computer science, mathematics, and physics. Computational
neuroscience is distinct from psychological connectionism and from
learning theories of disciplines such as
machine learning, neural networks, and computational learning theory
in that it emphasizes descriptions of functional and biologically
realistic neurons (and
neural systems)
and their physiology and dynamics. These models capture the essential
features of the biological system at multiple spatial-temporal scales,
from membrane currents, proteins, and chemical coupling to network
oscillations, columnar and topographic architecture, and learning and
memory. These computational models are used to frame hypotheses that can
be directly tested by biological or psychological experiments.
Brain and Computer Similarities.
Neuroscience Resources
Child Neurology Society -
Child Neurology Foundation -
Child Development
Neuroscience Society -
Neuroscience Institute
Neurology -
Neurology -
Neurological Diagnostic Tests
-
Journal of Neurology
Journal of
Neuroscience -
Neurological Disorders -
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
International Neuropsychological Society
Affective
Neuroscience and Development Laboratory (Harvard)
Contemplative Neuroscience the study of neural mechanisms of
mindfulness meditation.
Contemplative neuroscience looks into neurological, physiological,
epigenetic, behavioral, social and cognitive manifestations or
consequences of a state of mind which is at the same time
meditative/mindful and compassionate/calm and selfless/altruistic although
bodily-aware.
Social
Neuroscience.
Developmental Neuroscience
describes the cellular and molecular mechanisms by
which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development and
throughout life.
Nervous System
Nervous System
is a highly complex part of an animal that
coordinates its actions and
sensory information by
transmitting signals to and from different
parts of its body. The nervous
system
detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in
tandem with the
endocrine system
to
respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike
organisms about
550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates it consists
of two main parts, the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system or PNS. The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The
PNS consists mainly of
nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the
long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to every
other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are
called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that
transmit information from the body
to the CNS are called
sensory or afferent. Spinal nerves serve both
functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into three
separate subsystems, the somatic,
autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary
movement. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic
nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to
mobilize energy,
while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are
in a
relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the
gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems
function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called
cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal
nerves. At the cellular level, the nervous system is defined by the
presence of a special type of cell, called the
neuron,
also known as a "nerve cell". Neurons have special structures that allow
them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these
signals in the form of electrochemical waves traveling along thin fibers
called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be
released at
junctions called
synapses. A cell that receives a
synaptic signal
from a neuron may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. The
connections between neurons can form neural pathways, neural circuits, and
larger networks that generate an organism's
perception of the world and
determine its
behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains
other specialized cells called
glial cells (or simply glia), which provide
structural and metabolic support. Nervous systems are found in most
multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. The only
multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are sponges, placozoans, and mesozoans, which have very simple body plans. The nervous
systems of the radially symmetric organisms ctenophores (comb jellies) and
cnidarians (which include anemones, hydras, corals and jellyfish) consist
of a diffuse nerve net. All other animal species, with the exception of a
few types of worm, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central
cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the
brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few
hundred cells in the simplest worms, to around 300 billion cells in
African elephants. The central nervous system functions to send
signals
from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to
receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result
of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection
or simply of ageing. The medical specialty of neurology studies disorders
of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or
treat them. In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is
the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes
including diabetic neuropathy and demyelinating disorders such as multiple
sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuroscience is the field of
science that focuses on the study of the nervous system.
Development of the Nervous System refers to the processes that
generate, shape, and
reshape the nervous system of animals, from the
earliest stages of
embryonic development to adulthood. Defects in neural
development can lead to
malformations
and a wide variety of sensory, motor, and
cognitive impairments, including holoprosencephaly and other neurological disorders in the human such as
Rett syndrome, Down syndrome and intellectual disability.
The central nervous system is composed entirely of two kinds of
specialized cells:
neurons and
glia. Hence,
every
information processing system in the CNS is composed of neurons and
glia; so too are the networks that compose the systems (and the maps).
Clearly, without these two types of cells, the CNS would not be able to do
what it does (which is everything having to do with our minds and how we
move our bodies). Neurons are the basic information processing structures
in the CNS. Everything occurring above the level of neurons qualifies as
information processing too. But nothing below the level of neurons does.
the function of a neuron is to receive INPUT "information" from other
neurons, to process that information, then to send "information" as OUTPUT
to other
neurons. (Synapses are connections between
neurons through which "information" flows from one neuron to another.)
Hence, neurons process all of the "information" that flows within, to, or
out of the CNS. All of it! All of the motor information through which we
are able to move; all of the sensory information through which we are able
to see, to hear, to smell, to taste, and to touch; and of course all of
the cognitive information through which we are able to reason, to think,
to dream, to plan, to remember, and to do everything else that we do with
our minds. Processing so many kinds of information requires many types of
neurons; there may be as many as 10,000 types of them. Processing so much
information requires a lot of neurons. How many? Well, "best estimates"
indicate that there are around 200 billion neurons in the brain alone! And
as each of these neurons is connected to between 5,000 and 200,000 other
neurons, the number of ways that information flows among neurons in the
brain is so large, it is greater than the number stars in the entire
universe! While we are considering numbers, it is worth noting that there
are as many as 50 times more glia than neurons in our CNS! Glia (or glial
cells) are the cells that provide support to the neurons. In much the same
way that the foundation, framework, walls, and roof of a house prove the
structure through which run various electric, cable, and telephone lines,
along with various pipes for water and waste, not only do glia provide the
structural framework that allows networks of neurons to remain connected,
they also attend to the brain's various house keeping functions, such as
removing debris after neuronal death.
Cranial Nerves -
Cortex -
Emotions -
Neurology -
Behavior -
HOS -
Muscles -
Fascia -
Neuroscience Central Nervous System
is the part of the nervous system consisting of the
brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because
it
integrates information it receives from, and
coordinates and influences
the activity of, all parts of the bodies of
bilaterally symmetric animals.
The nervous
system is adaptable.
Somatic Nervous
System connects the central nervous system with the body's
muscles and
skin. Its primary function
is to control
voluntary movements and
reflex arcs, while also helping us process the
senses of touch, sound,
taste, and smell. It's made up of motor neurons and sensory neurons that
help the body perform voluntary activities.
Autonomic Nervous System is a component of
the peripheral nervous system that regulates
involuntary physiologic processes including
heart rate,
blood pressure,
respiration,
digestion, and
sexual arousal. It contains
three anatomically distinct divisions, the sympathetic, parasympathetic,
and enteric nervous system.
Autonomic Nervous System is a division of the peripheral
nervous system that influences the function of internal organs. The
autonomic nervous system is a
control system that acts largely
unconsciously and
regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and
sexual
arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the
fight-or-flight response and the freeze-and-dissociate response.
Sympathetic Nervous System controls
fight-or-flight responses
and prepares the body for strenuous physical activity.
Sympathetic Nervous System directs the body's rapid involuntary
response to dangerous or
stressful situations. A flash flood of
hormones
boosts the body's alertness and
heart rate, sending extra blood to the
muscles. Sympathetic Nervous System is one of the two main divisions of the
autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous
system.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
is responsible for the body's
rest and
digestion response
when the body is relaxed, resting, or
feeding. It basically
undoes the work of sympathetic division after a stressful situation.
Parasympathetic Nervous System controls bodily functions
when a person is at rest. Some of its activities include stimulating
digestion, activating metabolism, and helping the body relax.
Parasympathetic Nervous System is one of the two divisions
of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the sympathetic nervous
system.
Enteric Nervous System
facilitates the
motor, sensory,
absorptive, and secretory functions of the gastrointestinal tract. It is
the largest and most complex unit of the peripheral nervous system, with
~600 million neurons releasing a multitude of neurotransmitters.
Enteric Nervous System is one of the main divisions of the autonomic
nervous system and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that
governs
the function of the
gastrointestinal system. It is
capable of acting independently of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, although it may be
influenced by them. Has its own independent reflex activity. The ENS is
also called the
second brain. It is derived from neural crest cells. The
enteric nervous system is capable of
operating independently of the brain
and spinal cord, but does rely on innervation from the autonomic nervous
system via the
vagus nerve and prevertebral ganglia in healthy subjects.
However, studies have shown that the system is operable with a severed
vagus nerve. The neurons of the enteric nervous system control the motor
functions of the system, in addition to the secretion of gastrointestinal
enzymes. These neurons communicate through many neurotransmitters similar
to the CNS, including acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. The large
presence of serotonin and dopamine in the gut are key areas of research
for neurogastroenterologists.
Peripheral
Nervous System controls involuntary bodily functions and regulates
glands. It is divided into two main parts, the autonomic nervous system
and the somatic nervous system.
Peripheral Nervous System is one of the two components of the nervous
system, the other part is the central nervous system. The PNS
consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The
main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the
limbs and
organs, essentially serving as a
relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body.
Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the vertebral column and
skull, or by the
blood–brain barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins
and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. In the somatic
nervous system, the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception
of the optic nerve (
cranial nerve II), along with the retina. The second
cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the
diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originated in the CNS. However, the
remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are
therefore considered part of the PNS. The autonomic nervous system is an
involuntary control of smooth muscle and glands. The connection between
CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states:
sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Endocannabinoid System
-
Focused Control -
Biofeedback
Spinal
Cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support
cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the
brainstem to the
lumbar region of the vertebral column. The brain and spinal cord together
make up the
central nervous system or the CNS.
It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord together
make up the central nervous system. In humans, the spinal cord
begins at the occipital bone, passing through the foramen magnum and
entering the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae. The
spinal cord extends down to between the first and second lumbar vertebrae,
where it ends. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively
shorter spinal cord. It is around 45 cm (18 in) in men and around 43 cm
(17 in) long in women. The diameter of the spinal cord ranges from 13 mm
(1⁄2 in) in the cervical and lumbar regions to 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in) in the
thoracic area. The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of
nerve signals from the motor cortex to the body, and from the afferent
fibers of the sensory neurons to the sensory cortex. It is also a center
for coordinating many reflexes and contains reflex arcs that can
independently control reflexes. It is also the location of groups of
spinal interneurons that make up the neural circuits known as central
pattern generators. These circuits are responsible for controlling motor
instructions for rhythmic movements such as walking.
Pain -
Paralyzed -
Numbness
Brainstem is in charge of all the functions your body needs to stay
alive, like breathing air, digesting food, and circulating blood. The
brainstem also plays an important role in the regulation of cardiac and
respiratory function. It also regulates the
central nervous system, and is pivotal in maintaining consciousness
and regulating the sleep cycle. The brainstem has many basic functions
including heart rate, breathing, sleeping, and eating. Brainstem is the
posterior part of the brain, continuous with the spinal cord. In the human
brain the brainstem includes the midbrain, and the pons and medulla
oblongata of the hindbrain. Sometimes the diencephalon, the caudal part of
the forebrain, is included. The brain stem
controls the flow of messages between the brain and the rest of the
body, and it also controls basic body functions such as breathing,
swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness, and whether one is
awake or sleepy. The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata. The Brainstem is the posterior part of the brain
or nearer the rear, continuous with the spinal cord. In the human
brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the
pons, and the
medulla
oblongata. The midbrain is continuous with the thalamus of the
diencephalon through the tentorial notch, and sometimes the diencephalon
is included in the brainstem. The brainstem is a very small component of
the brain, making up only around 2.6 percent of its total weight. It has
the critical role of regulating cardiac and respiratory function, helping
to control heart rate and breathing rate. It also provides the main motor
and sensory nerve supply to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. Ten
pairs of cranial nerves come from the brainstem. Other roles include the
regulation of the central nervous system and the body's sleep cycle. It is
also of prime importance in the conveyance of motor and sensory pathways
from the rest of the brain to the body, and from the body back to the
brain. These pathways include the corticospinal tract (
motor function),
the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (fine touch, vibration
sensation, and proprioception), and the spinothalamic tract (pain,
temperature, itch, and crude touch).
Modulate.
Reptilian Brain -
Primal Brain
Nerve is any bundle of nerve fibers
running to various organs and tissues of the body.
Sensory
Nervous System -
Cranial Nerves
-
Endocannabinoid System
Breakthrough in using stem cells to treat enteric nervous system disorders.
The enteric nervous system contains between 400-600 million nerves and is
crucial for everyday functions such as digestion, fluid absorption and
communicating with the immune system.
Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and
stereotyped organization of nervous systems.
Electrophysiology is the study of the
electrical properties of
biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage change
or electric current on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel
proteins to whole organs like the heart.
Neurotoxins are
toxins that are poisonous or
destructive to
nerve tissue causing
neurotoxicity. Neurotoxins are an
extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insults that can
adversely affect function in both developing and mature nervous tissue.
Neurological Disorder.
Oligodendrocyte are a type of neuroglia whose main functions are to
provide support and insulation to axons in the central nervous system of
some vertebrates, equivalent to the function performed by Schwann cells in
the peripheral nervous system. Oligodendrocytes do this by creating the
myelin sheath. A single oligodendrocyte can extend its processes to 50
axons, wrapping approximately 1 μm of myelin sheath around each axon;
Schwann cells, on the other hand, can wrap around only one axon. Each
oligodendrocyte forms one segment of myelin for several adjacent axons.
Oligodendrocytes are found only in the central nervous system, which
comprises the brain and spinal cord. These cells were originally thought
to have been produced in the ventral neural tube; however, research now
shows oligodendrocytes originate from the ventral ventricular zone of the
embryonic spinal cord and possibly have some concentrations in the
forebrain. They are the last cell type to be generated in the CNS.
Oligodendrocytes were discovered by Pío del Río Hortega.
Brain and Body (youtube)
Blood Brain Barrier is a highly selective permeability barrier that
separates the
circulating blood from the brain extracellular fluid in the
central nervous system (CNS). The blood–brain barrier is formed by brain
endothelial cells, which are connected by tight junctions with an
extremely high electrical resistivity of at least 0.1 Ω⋅m. The blood–brain
barrier allows the passage of water, some gases, and lipid-soluble
molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the selective transport of
molecules such as glucose and
amino acids that are crucial to
neural
function. On the other hand, the blood–brain barrier may prevent the entry
of
lipophilic, potential
neurotoxins by way of an active transport
mechanism mediated by P-glycoprotein. Astrocytes are necessary to create
the blood–brain barrier. A small number of regions in the brain, including
the circumventricular organs (CVOs), do not have a blood–brain barrier.
The main functions of this barrier, namely maintenance of brain
homeostasis, regulation of influx and efflux transport, and protection
from harm, are determined by its specialized multicellular structure.
Every constituent cell type makes an indispensible contribution to the
BBB’s integrity. But, if one member of the BBB fails and as a result, the
barrier breaks down, there can be dramatic consequences, and
neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration can occur.
Alzheimer's -
Disruption in the Blood-Brain Barrier: The Missing Link between Brain and
Body Inflammation in Bipolar Disorder? -
Blood-Brain Barrier on a Chip -
Injuries to the
Brain.
Scientists breach Brain Barriers to attack tumors. The brain is
equipped with barriers designed to keep out dangerous pathogens.
Researchers have now found a novel way to circumvent the brain's natural
defenses when they're counterproductive. While the brain itself has no
direct way for disposing of cellular waste, tiny vessels lining the
interior of the skull collect tissue waste and dispose of it through the
body's lymphatic system, which filters toxins and waste from the body. It
is this disposal system that researchers exploited in the new study. These
vessels form shortly after birth, spurred in part by the gene known as
vascular endothelial growth factor C, or VEGF-C.
Novel ultrasound uses microbubbles to open blood-brain barrier to treat
glioblastoma in humans. In the first in-human clinical trial,
scientists used a novel, skull-implantable ultrasound device to open the
blood-brain barrier and repeatedly permeate large, critical regions of the
human brain to deliver chemotherapy that was injected intravenously. This
is potentially a huge advance for glioblastoma patients because the most
potent chemotherapy can't permeate the blood-brain barrier to reach the
aggressive and deadly brain tumor.
Breaching the blood-brain barrier to deliver precious payloads.
Researchers use ultrasound to develop delivery system for potent RNA
drugs. RNA-based drugs may change the standard of care for many diseases,
making personalized medicine a reality. So far these cost-effective,
easy-to-manufacture drugs haven't been very useful in treating brain
tumors and other brain disease. But a team has shown that a combination of
ultrasound and RNA-loaded nanoparticles can temporarily open the
protective blood-brain barrier, allowing the delivery of potent medicine
to brain tumors.
Our own immune cells damage the integrity of the blood-brain barrier.
Researchers have shown that
microglia, a class of
immune cells in the brain, regulate the permeability of the brain's
protective barrier in response to systemic
inflammation. During
inflammation, microglia initially protect the barrier's integrity, but
they can later reverse their behavior and increase the barrier's
permeability.
Restoring the blood-brain barrier. Scientists discover a treatment in
mice to repair the blood-brain barrier, which is key to brain health.
There's a bouncer in everyone: The blood-brain barrier, a layer of cells
between blood vessels and the rest of the brain, kicks out toxins,
pathogens and other undesirables that can sabotage the brain's precious
gray matter.
Brain 'assembloids' mimic human blood-brain barrier. Major advance
promises to accelerate the understanding and improved treatment of a wide
range of brain disorders, including stroke, cerebral vascular disorders,
brain cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington disease, Parkinson's
disease, and other neurodegenerative conditions.
Cerebrospinal Fluid is a clear, colorless
body
fluid found in the
brain and
spinal cord. It is produced in the
choroid plexuses of the
ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the
arachnoid granulations. There is about 125mL of CSF at any one time,
and about 500mL is generated every day. CSF acts as a cushion or buffer
for the brain, providing basic mechanical and
immunological protection to the brain inside the
skull. The CSF also serves a vital function in
cerebral autoregulation of
cerebral blood flow. The CSF occupies the
subarachnoid space (between the
arachnoid mater and the
pia
mater) and the
ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It
fills the
ventricles of the brain,
cisterns, and
sulci, as well as the
central canal of the spinal cord. There is also a connection from the
subarachnoid space to the
bony labyrinth of the
inner
ear via the
perilymphatic duct where the
perilymph is continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid. A sample of CSF
can be taken via
lumbar puncture. This can reveal the
intracranial pressure, as well as indicate diseases including
infections of the
brain or
its
surrounding meninges. Although noted by
Hippocrates, it was only in the eighteenth century that
Emanuel Swedenborg is credited with its rediscovery, and as late as
1914 that
Harvey W. Cushing demonstrated CSF was secreted by the choroid plexus.
Lymphatic System.
Amniotic Fluid is a clear, slightly yellowish liquid that surrounds
the unborn baby (fetus) during pregnancy. It is contained in the amniotic
sac. Polyhydramnios may occur when a fetus cannot swallow a normal amount
of amniotic fluid due to a gastrointestinal, neurological, or other
problem. The amniotic fluid is the protective liquid contained by the
amniotic sac of a gravid amniote. This fluid serves as a cushion for the
growing fetus, but also serves to facilitate the exchange of nutrients,
water, and biochemical products between mother and fetus.
Liquid Breathing
is a form of
respiration
in which a normally
air-breathing organism breathes an oxygen-rich liquid (such as a
perfluorocarbon), rather than breathing air, by selecting a liquid that
can hold a large amount of oxygen and is capable of CO2 gas exchange.
Fluid flow in the brain can be manipulated by sensory stimulation.
Blood flow induced by visual stimulation drives the flow of cerebrospinal
fluid. Researchers report that the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the
brain is linked to waking brain activity. The study demonstrates that
manipulating blood flow in the brain with visual stimulation induces
complementary fluid flow. Just as our kidneys help remove toxic waste from
our bodies, cerebrospinal fluid helps remove toxins from the brain,
particularly
while we sleep.
Nasopharyngeal lymphatics found to be crucial for cerebrospinal fluid
outflow. Researchers have uncovered a distinctive network of lymphatic
vessels at the back of the nose that plays a critical role in draining
cerebrospinal fluid from the brain. The study, sheds light on a
previously unknown route for CSF outflow, potentially unlocking new
avenues for understanding and treating neurodegenerative conditions.
Circumventricular Organs are structures in the brain characterized by
their extensive vasculature and highly permeable capillaries unlike those
in the rest of the brain where there exists a blood brain barrier (BBB).
The CVOs allow for the linkage between the
central nervous system and peripheral
blood. Additionally, they are an
integral part of neuroendocrine function. The highly permeable capillaries
allow the CVOs to act as an alternative route for peptides and
hormones in the neural tissue
to sample from and secrete to circulating blood. CVOs also have roles in
body fluid regulation, cardiovascular
functions,
immune responses,
thirst, feeding behavior and
reproductive
behavior. CVOs can be classified as either
sensory or secretory
organs serving homeostatic functions and body water balance. The sensory
organs include the area postrema (AP), the subfornical organ (SFO) and the
vascular organ of lamina terminalis, all having the ability to sense
signals in blood, then pass that information neurally to other brain
regions. Through their neural connections, they provide direct information
to the autonomic nervous system from the systemic circulation. The
secretory organs include the subcommissural organ (SCO), the neural lobe
of the pituitary gland, the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland, the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, the median eminence, and the pineal
gland. These organs are responsible for secreting hormones and
glycoproteins into the peripheral blood using feedback from both the brain
environment and external stimuli. All of the circumventricular organs,
except the subcommissural organ, contain extensive vasculature and
permeable capillaries which define a sensory and secretory system within
the brain. Furthermore, all CVOs contain neural tissue, enabling a
neuroendocrine role. The choroid plexus, having permeable capillaries,
does not contain neural tissue, but rather its primary role is to produce
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and so is typically excluded from
classification as a CVO.
Endothelium is a type of epithelium that lines the
interior surface of blood vessels and
lymphatic vessels, forming an
interface between
circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of
the vessel wall. It is a thin layer of simple squamous cells called
endothelial cells. Endothelial cells in direct contact with blood are
called vascular endothelial cells, whereas those in direct contact with
lymph are known as lymphatic endothelial cells.
The
Brain rids itself of waste products. Other organs in the body achieve
this via a system called the
lymphatic system. A network of lymphatic vessels extends throughout
the body in a pattern similar to that of blood vessels. Waste products
from cells, plus bacteria, viruses and excess fluids drain out of the
body’s tissues into lymphatic vessels, which transfer them to the
bloodstream. Blood vessels then carry the waste products to the
kidneys, which filter them out for
excretion. Lymphatic vessels are also a highway for circulation of white
blood cells, which fight infections, and are therefore an important part
of the
immune system.
Inside the central nervous system is a region that includes the brain
and spinal cord, it is the job of certain cells, called
microglia, to clean up that cellular debris. Microglia have
counterparts called
macrophages that serve similar function outside the CNS in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), the region that contains most of the
sensory and motor nerves.
Molecular Switch for Repairing Central Nervous System Disorders.
Neuropsychology studies the structure and function of the
brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors. It
is an experimental field of psychology that aims to understand how
behavior and cognition are influenced by brain functioning and is
concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive
effects of neurological disorders.
Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with
disorders of the nervous system.
Neurologist is a branch of medicine dealing with
disorders of the
nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and
treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the
central and peripheral nervous system (and its subdivisions, the autonomic
nervous system and the somatic nervous system); including their coverings,
blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological
practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which is the
scientific study of the nervous system. A neurologist is a physician
specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, or diagnose and
treat
neurological disorders. Neurologists may also be involved in
clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research.
While neurology is a non-surgical specialty, its corresponding surgical
specialty is neurosurgery. There is significant overlap between the fields
of neurology and psychiatry, with the boundary between the two disciplines
and the conditions they treat being somewhat nebulous.
Neuropathology
is the study of disease of
nervous system tissue, usually in the form of
either small surgical biopsies or whole-body autopsies. Neuropathology is
a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. It
should not be confused with neuropathy, which refers to disorders of the
nerves themselves (usually in the peripheral nervous system).
Neurophysiology is a branch of physiology and
neuroscience that is concerned with the study of the functioning of the
nervous system.
Clinical Neurophysiology
is a medical specialty that studies the central and peripheral nervous
systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated.
Molecular switch for repairing central nervous system disorders. By
genetically switching off a receptor activated by blood proteins, named
Protease Activated Receptor 1 (PAR1), the body switches on
regeneration of myelin, a fatty substance that coats and protects nerves.
Cognitive Science - Psychological Processes
Cognitive Neuropsychology
is a branch of cognitive
psychology that
aims to understand how the
structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological
processes. Cognitive psychology is the science that looks at how the
brain's mental processes are responsible for our
cognitive abilities to
store and produce new
memories, produce
language, recognize people and
objects, as well as our ability to
reason and
problem solve. Cognition
enhancement.
Cognitive Neuropsychiatry is a growing
multidisciplinary field arising out of cognitive psychology and
neuropsychiatry that aims to understand mental illness and
psychopathology
in terms of models of normal psychological function.
Fantasy.
Neurocognitive functions are
cognitive functions
closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or
cortical networks in the brain
substrate layers of neurological
matrix at
the cellular molecular level. Therefore, their understanding is closely
linked to the practice of neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience, two
disciplines that broadly seek to understand how the structure and function
of the brain relates to perception
defragmentation of concepts, memory
embed, association and recall both in the thought process and
behavior.
Neurological
Disorder is any disorder of the
nervous
system. Structural, biochemical or electrical abnormalities in the
brain, spinal cord or other nerves can result in a range of symptoms.
Examples of symptoms include paralysis, muscle weakness, poor
coordination,
loss of sensation,
seizures,
confusion, pain and
altered levels of consciousness. There are many recognized neurological
disorders, some relatively common, but many rare. They may be assessed by
neurological examination, and studied and treated within the specialities
of neurology and clinical neuropsychology. Interventions for neurological
disorders include preventative measures, lifestyle changes, physiotherapy
or other therapy, neurorehabilitation,
pain management, medication, or operations performed by neurosurgeons.
The World Health Organization estimated in 2006 that neurological
disorders and their sequelae (direct consequences) affect as many as one
billion people worldwide, and identified health inequalities and social
stigma/discrimination as major factors contributing to the associated
disability and suffering.
Neuropsychologia is an International Journal in Behavioural and
Cognitive Neuroscience.
Neurotechnology is any technology that has a
fundamental influence on how people understand the brain and various
aspects of consciousness, thought, and higher order activities in the
brain. It also includes technologies that are designed to improve and
repair brain function and allow researchers and clinicians to visualize
the brain.
Peripheral
Neuropathy is damage to or disease affecting nerves, which may impair
sensation, movement, gland or organ function, or other aspects of health,
depending on the type of nerve affected. Common causes include systemic
diseases (such as diabetes or leprosy), vitamin deficiency, medication
(e.g., chemotherapy, or commonly prescribed antibiotics including
Metronidazole and the Fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics (Ciprofloxacin,
Levaquin, Avelox etc.), traumatic injury, radiation therapy, excessive
alcohol consumption, immune system disease, Coeliac disease, or viral
infection.
Cognitive Science is the interdisciplinary,
scientific study of the
Mind and its
Processes. It examines the nature,
the tasks, and the functions of
cognition. Cognitive scientists study
intelligence and
behavior, with a focus on how
nervous systems represent,
process, and transform information.
Mental faculties of concern to
cognitive scientists include
language,
perception,
memory,
attention,
reasoning, and
emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive
scientists borrow from fields such as
linguistics,
psychology,
artificial
intelligence,
philosophy,
neuroscience, and
anthropology. The typical
analysis of cognitive science span many levels of organization, from
learning and
decision to
logic and
planning; from neural circuitry to
modular brain organization. The fundamental concept of cognitive science
is that "thinking can best be understood in terms of representational
structures in the mind and
computational procedures that operate on those
structures.
Cognitive Neuroscience
the scientific study of the
biological processes and aspects that underlie
cognition, with a specific focus on the
neural connections in the brain
which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how
psychological/cognitive activities are affected or controlled by
neural
circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both
psychology and neuroscience, overlapping with disciplines such as
physiological psychology, cognitive psychology, and neuropsychology.
Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled
with evidence from neuropsychology, and computational modeling.
Cognitivism is a theoretical framework for
understanding the
mind.
Cognitive and Linguistic Sciences -
Cognitive Processes
Cognitive decline may be detected using network analysis, according to
Concordia researchers. esearchers use network analysis to study whether it
can reveal the subtle changes associated with subjective cognitive decline
that cannot otherwise be detected through standard test analyses. By
running a statistical analysis of data merged from two large Canadian data
sets, the researchers were able to visualize the strength of relationships
between the nodes among people who are classified as cognitively normal
(CN), or who have diagnoses of subjective cognitive decline (SCD), mild
cognitive impairment (MCI) or Alzheimer's disease (AD).
NeuroFeedback is a type of biofeedback that uses
real-time displays of brain activity—most commonly
electroencephalography, to teach self-regulation of brain
function. Typically, sensors are placed on the scalp to measure activity,
with measurements displayed using video displays or sound.
Brain Waves
-
Binaural Beats -
Society
for Neuro-Feedback Research -
Stimulation
Neurofeedback helps to control Learning Success. Our brain uses filter
systems to efficiently manage the gigantic amounts of information that
flow over us. Neuronal alpha oscillations are among them. They help to
reduce the flow of information in certain brain regions. The oscillations
can be specifically influenced by special training. A team from the Neural
Plasticity Lab at the Institute of Neuroinformatics at Ruhr-Universität
Bochum (RUB) and the Department of Neurology at the RUB Hospital
Bergmannsheil has discovered that test subjects can influence their
learning success in a tactile task
themselves. Thoughts and feelings influence the oscillations.
Intelligence Testing -
Addictions
-
Science Kits -
Cells
Neuroinformatics is a research field concerned with the organization
of neuroscience data by the application of computational models and
analytical tools. These areas of research are important for the
integration and analysis of increasingly large-volume, high-dimensional,
and fine-grain experimental data. Neuroinformaticians provide
computational tools, mathematical models, and create interoperable
databases for clinicians and research scientists. Neuroscience is a
heterogeneous field, consisting of many and various sub-disciplines (e.g.,
cognitive psychology, behavioral neuroscience, and behavioral genetics).
In order for our understanding of the brain to continue to deepen, it is
necessary that these sub-disciplines are able to share data and findings
in a meaningful way; Neuroinformaticians facilitate this. Neuroinformatics
stands at the intersection of
neuroscience and
information science.
Neurons - Nerve Cells
Neuron or nerve
cell, is an
electrically excitable cell that processes and
transmits information
through
electrical and
chemical signals. These
signals between neurons
occur via synapses,
specialized connections with other
cells. Neurons can
connect to each other to form
neural networks. Neurons are the core
components of the brain and spinal cord of the
central nervous system, and of the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system.
Brain cells typically last an entire lifetime.
Neurons in the cerebral cortex, for example, are
not
replaced when they die.
Trans-Synaptic
Nanocolumn (youtube
video animation)
-
Neuron
Cell Diagram (image).
Neurotransmitter -
Neuromodulation -
Hormones -
Memories
Neural Pathway is the connection formed by axons that project from
neurons to make synapses onto neurons in another location, to enable a
signal to be sent from one region of the nervous
system to another. Neurons are connected by a single axon, or by a bundle
of axons known as a nerve tract, or fasciculus. Shorter neural pathways
are found within
grey matter in the brain,
whereas longer projections, made up of myelinated axons, constitute white
matter. In the hippocampus there are neural pathways involved in its
circuitry including the perforant pathway, that provides a
connectional route from the entorhinal
cortex to all fields of the
hippocampal
formation, including the dentate gyrus, all
CA fields (including CA1),
and the subiculum. Descending motor pathways of the pyramidal tracts
travel from the
cerebral cortex to the brainstem or
lower spinal cord. Ascending sensory tracts in the dorsal column–medial
lemniscus pathway (DCML) carry information from the periphery to the
cortex of the brain.
Thought
Processes.
Afferent is a
nerve that passes
impulses from
receptors toward or to the
central nervous system.
Neural Circuit
is a population of
neurons interconnected by synapses to carry out a
specific function when activated. Neural
circuits interconnect to one another to form large scale
brain networks.
Biological neural networks have inspired the design of artificial
Neural Networks.
Sensory Neurons
-
Nerves -
Receptors
Neuropil is a dense network of
interwoven nerve
fibers and their branches and synapses, together with glial filament.
Neuropil is any area in the
nervous system
composed of mostly unmyelinated axons, dendrites and
glial
cell processes that forms a synaptically dense region containing a
relatively low number of cell bodies. The most prevalent anatomical region
of neuropil is the brain which, although not completely composed of
neuropil, does have the largest and highest synaptically concentrated
areas of neuropil in the body. For example, the
neocortex and olfactory bulb both contain neuropil.
White matter, which is mostly composed of
myelinated axons (hence its white color) and glial cells, is generally not
considered to be a part of the neuropil.
Neural Development refers to the processes that generate,
shape, and
reshape the nervous system of animals, from the earliest stages
of embryogenesis to adulthood.
There are
as many as 10,000 specific types of neurons in the human brain,
generally speaking, there are three kinds of neurons:
motor neurons (for conveying
motor information),
sensory
neurons (for conveying sensory information), and interneurons (which
convey information between different types of neurons).
Neurochemistry
is the study of neurochemicals, including neurotransmitters and other
molecules such as
psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that influence
the function of neurons.
Neuroscience.
Neurochemical is
an organic molecule, such as
serotonin,
dopamine, or nerve growth
factor, that participates in neural activity. The science of
neurochemistry studies the functions of neurochemicals.
Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules
(peptides) used by neurons to
communicate with each other. They are
neuronal signaling molecules that influence the activity of the brain and
the body in specific ways. Different neuropeptides are involved in a wide
range of brain functions, including analgesia, reward, food intake,
metabolism, reproduction, social behaviors, learning and memory.
Neurology is a
branch of medicine dealing with
disorders of the
nervous system. Neurology deals with the
diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease
involving the central and peripheral nervous systems (and their
subdivisions, the autonomic and somatic nervous systems), including their
coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle.
Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which
is the scientific study of the nervous system.
When neurons die, their debris needs to be quickly removed in
order for the surrounding brain tissue to continue to function
properly.
Alzheimer's.
Monoamine Neurotransmitter are neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
that contain one amino group that is connected to an aromatic ring by a
two-carbon chain (-CH2-CH2-). All monoamines are derived from aromatic
amino acids like phenylalanine,
tyrosine, tryptophan, and the thyroid
hormones by the action of
aromatic amino acid decarboxylase enzymes. Monoaminergic systems, i.e.,
the networks of neurons that utilize monoamine neurotransmitters, are
involved in the regulation of cognitive processes such as emotion,
arousal, and certain types of memory. It has been found that monoamine
Neurotransmitters play an important role in the
secretion and production of
neurotrophin-3 by astrocytes, a chemical which maintains neuron
integrity and provides neurons with trophic support. Drugs used to
increase (or reduce) the effect of monoamine are sometimes used to treat
patients with psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and
schizophrenia.
Neurotransmitter -
Neuromodulation
Synapse is a structure that permits a
neuron or
nerve cell to pass an electrical or
chemical signal to another neuron.
Communication from a
neuron to any other cell type, such as to a
motor cell, although such
non-neuronal contacts may be referred to as junctions, which isa historically
older term.
Excitatory Synapse is a synapse in which an action potential
in a presynaptic neuron
increases the probability of an action potential
occurring in a postsynaptic cell. Neurons form networks through which
nerve impulses travel, each neuron often making numerous connections with
other cells. These electrical signals may be excitatory or inhibitory,
and, if the total of
excitatory
influences exceeds that of the
inhibitory influences, the neuron will generate a new action potential
at its axon hillock, thus transmitting the information to yet another
cell.
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
is a postsynaptic potential that makes the post synaptic neuron more
likely to fire an action potential. This temporary depolarization of
postsynaptic membrane potential, caused by the flow of positively charged
ions into the postsynaptic cell, is a result of opening ligand-gated ion
channels.
Synaptic Potential refers to the potential difference across the
postsynaptic membrane that results from the action of neurotransmitters at
a neuronal synapse. In other words, it is the “incoming”
signal that a neuron receives. There are two forms
of synaptic potential: excitatory and inhibitory. The type of potential
produced depends on both the postsynaptic receptor, more specifically the
changes in conductance of ion channels in the post synaptic membrane, and
the nature of the released neurotransmitter. Excitatory post-synaptic
potentials (EPSPs) depolarize the membrane and move the potential closer
to the threshold for an action potential to be generated. Inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) hyperpolarize the membrane and move the
potential farther away from the threshold, decreasing the likelihood of an
action potential occurring. The Excitatory Post Synaptic potential is most
likely going to be carried out by the neurotransmitters glutamate and
acetylcholine, while the Inhibitory post synaptic potential will most
likely be carried out by the neurotransmitters gamma-aminobutyric acid
or GABA and glycine. In order to depolarize a neuron enough to cause an
action potential, there must be enough EPSPs to both depolarize the
postsynaptic membrane from its resting membrane potential to its threshold
and counterbalance the concurrent IPSPs that hyperpolarize the membrane.
As an example, consider a neuron with a resting membrane potential of -70
mV (millivolts) and a threshold of -50 mV. It will need to be raised 20 mV
in order to pass the threshold and fire an action potential. The neuron
will account for all the many incoming excitatory and
inhibitory signals
via summative neural integration, and if the result is an increase of 20
mV or more, an action potential will occur.
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential is a kind of synaptic potential that
makes a postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an
action potential.
Neural
Inhibition is the
interruption or
blockade of activity and restriction of
activity patterns in both space and time.
Inhibitory
neurons are nerve cells that act by silencing their synaptic partners.
Interneurons
are types of nerve cells, typically found in integrative areas of the
central nervous system, whose axons (and
dendrites) are limited to a single brain area. This feature distinguishes
them from principal cells, which often have axonal projections outside the
brain area where their cell bodies and dendrites are located.
Interneuron is one of the three classifications of
neurons found in
the human body. Interneurons create neural circuits, enabling
communication between
sensory or
motor neurons and the
central nervous
system. They have been found to function in reflexes, neuronal
oscillations, and neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain. Interneurons
can be further broken down into two groups: local interneurons, and relay
interneurons. Local interneurons have short axons and form circuits with
nearby neurons to analyze small pieces of information. Relay interneurons
have long axons and connect circuits of neurons in one region of the brain
with those in other regions. The interaction between interneurons allow
the brain to perform complex functions such as learning, and
decision-making. Unlike the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the central
nervous system, including the brain, contains many interneurons. In the
neocortex (making up about 80% of the human brain), approximately 20-30%
of neurons are interneurons. Interneurons in the CNS are primarily
inhibitory, and use the neurotransmitter
GABA or glycine. However,
excitatory interneurons using glutamate in the CNS also exist, as do
interneurons releasing neuromodulators like acetylcholine. Investigations
into the molecular diversity of neurons is impeded by the inability to
isolate cell populations born at different times for gene expression
analysis. An effective means of identifying coetaneous interneurons is
neuronal birthdating. This can be achieved using nucleoside analogs such
as
EdU, which is a thymidine analogue which is incorporated into the DNA
of dividing cells. (Interneuron is also called relay neuron, association neuron, connector
neuron, intermediate neuron or local circuit neuron).
Gamma-aminobutyric acid or GABA is a neurotransmitter, a chemical
messenger in your brain. It
slows down your brain
by
blocking specific signals in your
central nervous system (your brain and spinal cord). GABA is known for
producing a calming effect.
γ-Aminobutyric
acid is the chief
inhibitory neurotransmitter in the developmentally mature mammalian
central
nervous system. Its principal role is
reducing neuronal excitability throughout
the nervous system.
Neuromodulation.
Spinal Interneuron is an interneuron found in the
spinal cord that
relays signals between afferent neurons and efferent neurons.
Different classes of spinal interneurons are involved in the process of
sensory-motor integration. Most interneurons are found in the grey column,
a region of grey matter in the spinal cord.
Spindle Neuron.
Cholinergic Neuron is a nerve cell which
mainly uses the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine or ACh to send its messages.
Synaptic
Noise refers to the constant bombardment of synaptic
activity in
neurons. This occurs in the background of a cell when
potentials are produced without the nerve stimulation of an
action
potential, and are due to the inherently random nature of
synapses. These
random potentials have similar time courses as excitatory postsynaptic
potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), yet
they lead to variable neuronal responses. The variability is due to
differences in the discharge times of action potentials.
Load Noises.
Summation
in neurophysiology
is the process that determines whether or not an action potential will be
triggered by the combined effects of excitatory and inhibitory signals,
both from multiple simultaneous inputs (spatial summation), and from
repeated inputs (temporal summation). Depending on the sum total of many
individual inputs, summation may or may not reach the threshold voltage to
trigger an
action
potential.
Chemical Synapse
are biological junctions through which neurons signal can be exchanged to
each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands.
Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the
central nervous system. They are crucial to the
biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow
the nervous system to connect to and control other systems of the body.
Axon
is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically
conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body. Myelinated
axons are known as
nerve fibers. The function of the axon is to transmit
information to different neurons, muscles and glands.
Axon Terminal.
Dendrite
are the branched projections of a neuron that act to propagate the
electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the
cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project.
Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons
(usually their axons) via synapses which are located at various points
throughout the dendritic tree. Dendrites play a critical role in
integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which
action potentials are produced by the neuron.
Apical Dendrite is a dendrite that emerges from the apex of a
pyramidal cell.
Basal Dendrite is a dendrite that emerges from the base of a pyramidal
cell that receives information from nearby neurons and passes it to the
soma, or cell body.
Pyramidal Cell are a type of
multipolar neuron found in areas of the brain including the
cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.
Pyramidal neurons are the primary excitation units of the mammalian
prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract. Pyramidal neurons are also
one of two cell types where the characteristic sign, Negri bodies, are
found in post-mortem rabies infection. Pyramidal neurons were first
discovered and studied by Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Since then, studies on
pyramidal neurons have focused on topics ranging from
neuroplasticity to
cognition.
Granule Cell has
been used for a number of different types of neuron whose only common
feature is that they all have very small cell bodies. Granule cells are
found within the granular layer of the
cerebellum,
the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the superficial layer of the dorsal
cochlear nucleus, the olfactory bulb, and the cerebral cortex. Cerebellar
granule cells
account for the majority of neurons
in the human brain. These granule cells receive excitatory input
from mossy fibers originating from pontine nuclei. Cerebellar granule
cells project up through the Purkinje layer into the molecular layer where
they branch out into parallel fibers that spread through Purkinje cell
dendritic arbors. These parallel fibers form thousands of excitatory
granule-cell–Purkinje-cell synapses onto the intermediate and distal
dendrites of Purkinje cells using glutamate as a neurotransmitter. Layer 4
granule cells of the cerebral cortex receive inputs from the thalamus and
send projections to supragranular layers 2–3, but also to infragranular
layers of the cerebral cortex.
Soma
is the bulbous end of a neuron, containing the cell nucleus.
Potassium Channel functions to conduct potassium ions down their
electrochemical gradient, doing so both rapidly (up to the diffusion
rate of K+ ions in bulk water) and selectively (excluding, most notably,
sodium despite the sub-angstrom difference in ionic radius). Biologically,
these
channels act to set or reset the resting potential in many
cells. In
excitable cells, such as neurons, the delayed counterflow of potassium
ions shapes the
action potential.
Ion is an
atom or a
molecule in which the total number
of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom
or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be
created, by either chemical or physical means, via ionization.
Proton Pump.
Neural Coding is
a neuroscience related field concerned with characterizing the
relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal
responses and the relationship among the electrical activity of the
neurons in the ensemble. Based on the theory that
sensory and other
information is represented in the brain by
networks
of neurons, it is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog
information.
Myelin is an
insulating layer, or
sheath that forms around nerves, including those in
the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and fatty substances.
This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and
efficiently along the nerve cells. Myelin is a lipid-rich fatty white
substance substance that surrounds nerve cell axons (
the
nervous system's "wires") to insulate them and increase the rate at
which electrical impulses (called action potentials) are passed along the
axon. The myelinated axon can be likened to an electrical wire (the axon)
with insulating material (myelin) around it. However, unlike the plastic
covering on an electrical wire, myelin does not form a single long sheath
over the entire length of the axon. Rather, each myelin sheath insulates
the axon over a single long section and, in general, each axon comprises
multiple long myelinated sections separated from each other by short gaps
called nodes of Ranvier. Myelin is formed in the central nervous system
(CNS) by glial cells called oligodendrocytes and in the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) by glial cells called Schwann cells. In the CNS, axons carry
electrical signals from one nerve cell body to another. In the PNS, axons
carry signals to muscles and glands or from sensory organs such as the
skin. Each myelin sheath is formed by the concentric wrapping of an
oligodendrocyte (CNS) or Schwann cell (PNS) process (a limb-like extension
from the cell body) around the axon. Myelin reduces the capacitance of the
axonal membrane. On a molecular level, it increases the distance between
the cations on the outside of the axon and the Na?-ions that enter the
axon at the nodes of Ranvier during an action potential and move through
the axoplasm beneath the myelin sheath. This greatly reduces the magnitude
of the repulsive forces (which are inversely proportional to the square of
the distance, as per Coulomb's law) between them that would otherwise act
to inhibit the movement of the Na?-ions. The discontinuous structure of
the myelin sheath results in saltatory conduction, whereby the action
potential "jumps" from one node of Ranvier, over a long myelinated stretch
of the axon called the internode, before "recharging" at the next node of
Ranvier, and so on, until it reaches the axon terminal. Nodes of Ranvier
are the short (c. 1 micron) unmyelinated regions of the axon between
adjacent long (c. 0.2 mm – >1 mm) myelinated internodes. Once it reaches
the axon terminal, this electrical signal provokes the release of a
chemical message or neurotransmitter that binds to receptors on the
adjacent post-synaptic cell (e.g., nerve cell in the CNS or muscle cell in
the PNS) at specialised regions called synapses. This "insulating" role
for myelin is essential for normal motor function (i.e. movement such as
walking), sensory function (e.g. hearing, seeing or feeling the sensation
of pain) and cognition (e.g. acquiring and recalling knowledge), as
demonstrated by the consequences of disorders that affect it, such as the
genetically determined leukodystrophies; the acquired inflammatory
demyelinating disorder, multiple sclerosis; and the inflammatory
demyelinating peripheral neuropathies. Due to its high prevalence,
multiple sclerosis, which specifically affects the central nervous system
(brain, spinal cord and optic nerve), is the best known disorder of
myelin.
Myelination determines the nerve cell power of inhibition, study finds.
The brain contains billions of nerves that connect with each other via
cable- like structures called axons. Axons transmit electrical impulses
and are often wrapped in a fatty substance called myelin. This substance
increases the speed of nerve impulses and reduces the energy lost over
long distances. Loss or damage of the myelin layer -- which is the case
for multiple sclerosis- can cause serious disability. Although myelinated
axons play pivotal roles in brain function, only little is understood
about their role in the electrical architecture of local circuits where
experiences are processed, and memories are stored.
Myelin Sheath Gap are periodic gaps in the
insulating myelin sheaths of myelinated axons where the axonal membrane is
exposed to the extracellular space.
Myelinogenesis is generally the proliferation of myelin sheaths
throughout the nervous system, and specifically the progressive
myelination of nerve axon fibers in the central nervous system. This is a
non-simultaneous process that occurs primarily postnatally in mammalian
species, beginning in the embryo during the midst of early development and
finishing after birth.
Myelination Learning.
Myelin Basic Protein is a
protein believed to
be important in the process of myelination of nerves in the
nervous
system. The myelin sheath is a multi-layered membrane, unique to the
nervous system, that functions as an insulator to greatly increase the
velocity of axonal impulse conduction. MBP maintains the correct structure
of myelin, interacting with the lipids in the myelin membrane.
Methylome is the set of nucleic acid
methylation modifications in an organism's genome or in a particular cell.
New kinds of brain cells revealed. Salk and UC San Diego scientists
analyzed methylation patterns of neurons to find new subtypes.
Myelin-forming
glial cells are crucial for the temporal processing of acoustic signals.
Neuroglia also
called
Glial Cells or simply
glia, are
non-neuronal cells in the
central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. They maintain
homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons.
In the central nervous system, glial cells include
Oligodendrocytes,
astrocytes, ependymal cells and microglia, and in the
peripheral nervous systems glial cells include Schwann cells and satellite cells. They have
four main functions: (1) To surround neurons and hold them in place (2) To
supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons (3) To insulate one neuron from
another (4) To destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons. They also play a
role in neurotransmission and synaptic connections, and in physiological
processes like breathing.
Microglia are a type of neuroglia or glial cell located throughout the
brain and
spinal cord. Microglia account for
10–15% of all cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage
cells, they act as the first and main
form of active immune defense
in the
central nervous system.
Microglia are
glial cells derived from mesoderm
that function as macrophages or scavengers in the central nervous system
and form part of the
reticuloendothelial system. Microglia are a type of neuroglia or glial
cell located throughout the brain and
spinal cord.
Microglia account for 10–15% of all cells found within the brain. As the
resident
macrophage cells,
they act as the first and main form of active
immune defense in the
central nervous system. Microglia (and other
neuroglia including astrocytes) are distributed in large non-overlapping
regions throughout the CNS. Microglia are key cells in overall
brain maintenance—they are constantly scavenging the
CNS for
plaques, damaged or
unnecessary neurons and synapses, and infectious agents. Since these
processes must be efficient to prevent potentially fatal damage, microglia
are extremely sensitive to even small pathological changes in the CNS.
This sensitivity is achieved in part by the presence of unique
potassium channels
that respond to even small changes in extracellular potassium. Recent
evidence shows that microglia are also key players in the sustainment of
normal brain functions under healthy conditions. Microglia also constantly
monitor neuronal functions through direct somatic contacts and exert
neuroprotective effects when needed. The brain and spinal cord, which make
up the CNS, are not usually accessed directly by pathogenic factors in the
body's circulation due to a series of endothelial cells known as the
blood–brain barrier, or BBB. The BBB prevents most
infections from reaching the vulnerable nervous tissue. In the case where
infectious agents are directly introduced to the brain or cross the
blood–brain barrier, microglial cells must react quickly to decrease
inflammation and destroy the infectious agents before they damage the
sensitive neural tissue. Due to the lack of antibodies from the rest of
the body (few antibodies are small enough to cross the blood–brain
barrier), microglia must be able to recognize foreign bodies, swallow
them, and act as antigen-presenting cells activating
T-cells. Microglial cells
are extremely plastic, and undergo a variety of structural changes based
on location and system needs. This level of plasticity is required to
fulfill the vast variety of functions that microglia perform. The ability
to transform distinguishes microglia from macrophages, which must be
replaced on a regular basis, and provides them the ability to defend the
CNS on extremely short notice without causing immunological disturbance.
Microglia adopt a specific form, or phenotype, in response to the local
conditions and chemical signals they have detected.
Neurogenesis -
Plasticity -
Processing
Astrocyte are
characteristic
star-shaped glial cells in
the brain and
spinal cord. They perform many functions, including
biochemical support of endothelial cells that form the
blood–brain
barrier, provision of nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance
of extracellular ion balance, regulation of cerebral blood flow, and a
role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord
following infection and
traumatic injuries.
Oligodendrocyte are a
type of neuroglia. Their main functions are to
provide support and insulation to axons in the central nervous system of
some vertebrates, equivalent to the function performed by Schwann cells in
the peripheral nervous system. Oligodendrocytes do this by creating the
myelin sheath, which is 80% lipid and 20% protein. A single
oligodendrocyte can extend its processes to 50 axons, wrapping
approximately 1 μm of myelin sheath around each axon; Schwann cells, on
the other hand, can wrap around only one axon. Each oligodendrocyte forms
one segment of myelin for several adjacent axons.
Bergmann Glial Cells in cerebellum are electrically nonexcitable cells
that in many ways serve the same functions as protoplasmic astrocytes in
forebrain. Bergmann glia are chiefly responsible for glutamate uptake and
extracellular K+ homeostasis (1).
Radial Glial Cells, or radial glial progenitor cells, are
bipolar-shaped
progenitor cells that are
responsible for producing all of the neurons in the cerebral cortex. RGPs
also produce certain lineages of glia, including astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes. Their cell bodies (somata) reside in the embryonic
ventricular zone, which lies next to the developing ventricular system.
During development, newborn neurons use radial glia as scaffolds,
traveling along the radial glial fibers in order to reach their final
destinations. Despite the various possible fates of the radial glial
population, it has been demonstrated through clonal analysis that most
radial glia have restricted, unipotent or multipotent, fates. Radial glia
can be found during the neurogenic phase in all vertebrates (studied to
date). The term "radial glia" refers to the morphological characteristics
of these cells that were first observed: namely, their radial processes
and their similarity to astrocytes, another member of the glial cell
family.
Schwann Cell
are the principal glia of the
peripheral nervous system.
Glial cells
function to support neurons and in the PNS, also include satellite cells,
olfactory ensheathing cells, enteric glia and glia that reside at sensory
nerve endings, such as the Pacinian corpuscle. There are two types of
Schwann cell, myelinating and nonmyelinating.
Myelinating Schwann cells
wrap around axons of motor and sensory neurons to form the myelin sheath.
The Schwann cell promoter is present in the Downstream region of the Human Dystrophin Gene that gives shortened transcript that are again synthesized
in a tissue specific manner.
Transcriptomic and Morphophysiological evidence for a Specialized Human
Cortical GABAergic cell type. We describe convergent evidence from
transcriptomics, morphology, and physiology for a specialized GABAergic
neuron subtype in human cortex. Using unbiased single-nucleus RNA
sequencing, we identify ten GABAergic interneuron subtypes with
combinatorial gene signatures in human cortical layer 1 and characterize a
group of human interneurons with anatomical features never described in
rodents, having large ‘rosehip’-like axonal boutons and compact
arborization. These rosehip cells show an immunohistochemical profile (GAD1+CCK+,
CNR1–SST–CALB2–PVALB–) matching a single transcriptomically defined cell
type whose specific molecular marker signature is not seen in mouse
cortex. Rosehip cells in layer 1 make homotypic gap junctions,
predominantly target apical dendritic shafts of layer 3 pyramidal neurons,
and inhibit backpropagating pyramidal action potentials in microdomains of
the dendritic tuft. These cells are therefore positioned for potent local
control of distal dendritic computation in cortical pyramidal neurons.
Claustrum is a sheet of neurons that is attached to the
underside of the
neocortex in the center of the
brain. Contains a great deal of longitudinal connections between its
neurons that could serve to synchronize the entire anterior-posterior extent of the claustrum.
Subtle Differences In Brain Cells like Astrocyte cells Hint at Why Many
Drugs Help Mice But Not People. To compare mouse and human brain
cells, researchers first analyzed sixteen thousand human brain cells taken
from the middle temporal gyrus, a part of the cortex, the brain's
outermost layer. Then they looked at cells taken from the same area of a
mouse brain. In one sense, they are remarkable similar, both mice and
people had about 100 different types of cells in this region of the brain.
But a close comparison of 75 of these brain cell types revealed small
differences. Microglia, which are the immune cells of the brain have a
slightly different genetic signature in mice and people.
Neuroscientists roll out first comprehensive atlas of brain cells.
BRAIN initiative consortium takes census of motor cortex cells in mice,
marmoset and humans.
Brain cell differences could be key to learning in humans and AI.
Researchers have found that variability between brain cells might speed up
learning and improve the performance of the brain and
future AI.
Mapping the mouse brain, and by extension, the human brain too.
Researchers further refine the organization of cells within key regions of
the mouse brain and the organization of transcriptomic, epigenomic and
regulatory factors that provide these brain cells with function and
purpose. The
circuits of the human brain contain more than
100 billion
neurons, each
linked to many other neurons via thousands of synaptic
connections, resulting in a three-pound organ that is profoundly
more
complex than the sum of its innumerable parts.
Signals - Modulation
Neuro-Modulation is the physiological process by which a given
neuron
uses one or more
chemicals to regulate diverse populations of neurons.
This is in contrast to classical synaptic transmission, in which one
presynaptic neuron directly influences a single postsynaptic partner.
Neuromodulators secreted by a small group of neurons diffuse through large
areas of the
nervous system, affecting multiple neurons. Major
neuromodulators in the
central nervous system include
dopamine, serotonin,
acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine.
Electrical Stimulation -
Cell Signaling -
Artificial
CircuitryModulation in
electronics is
the transmission of a
signal by using it
to vary a carrier
wave; changing the carrier's amplitude or frequency or
phase.
Neurotransmission also called synaptic
transmission, is the process by
which
signaling molecules called neurotransmitters are released by a
neuron (the presynaptic neuron), and bind to and activate the receptors of
another neuron (the postsynaptic neuron). Neurotransmission is essential
for the process of communication between two neurons.
Synaptic
transmission relies on: the availability of the neurotransmitter; the
release of the neurotransmitter by exocytosis; the binding of the
postsynaptic receptor by the neurotransmitter; the functional response of
the postsynaptic cell; and the subsequent removal or deactivation of the
neurotransmitter. Information is carried from one cell to the other by
neurotransmitters such as glutamate, dopamine, and serotonin, which
activate receptors on the receiving neuron to convey excitatory or
inhibitory messages.
Inhibitory signals
work to cancel the
signal. Every
time an action potential is triggered in a
neuron,
that cell will release whatever types of neurotransmitter it has, because
calcium cannot tell the difference between one vesicle and another.
Excitatory transmitter generates a
signal called an action potential in the receiving
neuron. An inhibitory transmitter prevents it. Neuromodulators
regulate groups of neurons. Excitatory neurotransmitters have excitatory
effects on the neuron.
Noise.
Neuropeptide are small protein-like molecules (peptides) used by
neurons to communicate with each other.
Neurotransmitter
also known as
chemical messengers, are endogenous chemicals that enable
neurotransmission. They transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such
as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another
"target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. Neurotransmitters are
released from synaptic vesicles in synapses into the synaptic cleft, where
they are received by receptors on the target cells. Many neurotransmitters
are synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as amino acids,
which are readily available from the diet and only require a small number
of biosynthetic steps for conversion. Neurotransmitters play a major role
in shaping everyday life and functions. Their exact numbers are unknown,
but more than 100 chemical messengers have been uniquely identified.
Neurotransmitter Transporter are a class of membrane transport
proteins that span the cellular membranes of
neurons. Their primary function is to carry neurotransmitters across these
membranes and to direct their further transport to specific intracellular
locations. There are more than twenty types of neurotransmitter
transporters. Vesicular transporters move neurotransmitters into synaptic
vesicles, regulating the concentrations of substances within them.
Vesicular transporters rely on a proton gradient created by the hydrolysis
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in order to carry out their work: v-ATPase
hydrolyzes ATP, causing protons to be pumped into the synaptic vesicles
and creating a proton gradient. Then the efflux of protons from the
vesicle provides the energy to bring the neurotransmitter into the
vesicle. Neurotransmitter transporters frequently use electrochemical
gradients that exist across cell membranes to carry out their work. For
example, some transporters use energy obtained by the cotransport, or
symport, of Na+ in order to move glutamate across membranes. Such
neurotransporter cotransport systems are highly diverse, as recent
development indicates that uptake systems are generally selective and
associate with a specific neurotransmitter. Normally, transporters in the
synaptic membrane serve to remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic
cleft and prevent their action or bring it to an end. However, on occasion
transporters can work in reverse, transporting neurotransmitters into the
synapse, allowing these neurotransmitters to bind to their receptors and
exert their effect. This "nonvesicular release" of neurotransmitters is
used by some cells, such as amacrine cells in the retina, as a normal form
of neurotransmitter release.
Signal
Transduction is the process by which a chemical or
physical signal is
transmitted through a
cell
as a series of molecular events, most commonly
protein
phosphorylation catalysed by protein
kinases,
which ultimately results in a cellular response. Proteins responsible for
detecting stimuli are generally termed receptors, although in some cases
the term sensor is used. The changes elicited by ligand binding (or signal
sensing) in a receptor give rise to a signaling cascade, which is a chain
of biochemical events along a signaling pathway. When signaling pathways
interact with one another they form networks, which allow cellular
responses to be coordinated, often by combinatorial
signaling events. At
the molecular level, such responses include changes in the transcription
or translation of genes, and post-translational and conformational changes
in proteins, as well as changes in their location. These molecular events
are the basic mechanisms controlling cell growth, proliferation,
metabolism and many other processes. In multicellular organisms, signal
transduction pathways have evolved to regulate cell communication in a
wide variety of ways. Each component (or node) of a signaling pathway is
classified according to the role it plays with respect to the initial
stimulus. Ligands are termed first messengers, while receptors are the
signal transducers, which then activate primary effectors. Such effectors
are often linked to second messengers, which can activate secondary
effectors, and so on. Depending on the efficiency of the nodes, a signal
can be amplified (a concept known as signal gain), so that one signaling
molecule can generate a response involving hundreds to millions of
molecules. As with other signals, the transduction of biological signals
is characterized by delay,
noise, signal
feedback and feedforward and
interference, which can range from negligible to pathological. With the
advent of computational biology, the analysis of
signaling pathways and
networks has become an essential tool to understand cellular functions and
disease, including signaling rewiring mechanisms underlying responses to
acquired drug resistance.
Neurons in the brain can carry two signals at once. Using a strategy
similar to
multiplexing in
telecommunications. The results may explain how the brain processes
complex information from the world around us, and may also provide insight
into some of our perceptual and cognitive limitations.
A role for cell 'antennae' in managing dopamine signals in the brain.
Study is first to show proper signaling relies on
neuronal cilia. A historically overlooked rod-like projection
present on nearly every cell type in the human body may finally be getting
its scientific due. A new study has found that these appendages, called
cilia,
on neurons in the brain have a key role in ensuring a specific dopamine
receptor's signals are properly received.
Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinases are widely expressed protein
kinase intracellular
signalling molecules that are involved in functions including the
regulation of meiosis, mitosis, and postmitotic functions in
differentiated cells. Many different stimuli, including growth factors,
cytokines, virus infection, ligands for heterotrimeric G protein-coupled
receptors, transforming agents, and carcinogens, activate the ERK pathway.
Adenosine plays an important role in biochemical processes, such as
energy transfer as
well as in signal transduction. It is also a neuromodulator, believed to
play a role in promoting
sleep and suppressing
arousal. Adenosine also plays a role in regulation of blood flow to
various organs through
vasodilation.
Neuromuscular Junction is a chemical synapse formed by the contact
between a
motor neuron and a
muscle fiber. It is at the neuromuscular
junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the muscle
fiber, causing muscle contraction.
Norepinephrine is
an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the
human brain and body as a
hormone
and neurotransmitter.
Acetylcholine is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and
body of many types of animals, including humans, as a neurotransmitter—a
chemical released by nerve cells to
send signals to other cells. Its name
is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of
acetic acid and
choline. Parts in the body that use or are affected by acetylcholine are
referred to as
cholinergic. Substances that interfere with acetylcholine
activity are called
anticholinergics.
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular
junction—in other words, it is the chemical that motor neurons of the
nervous system release in order to activate
muscles. This property means that drugs that affect cholinergic systems
can have very dangerous effects ranging from paralysis to convulsions.
Acetylcholine is also used as a neurotransmitter in the
autonomic nervous system, both as an internal
transmitter for the sympathetic nervous system and as the final product
released by the parasympathetic nervous system. In the brain,
acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter and as a neuromodulator. The
brain contains a number of cholinergic areas, each with distinct
functions. They play an important role in
arousal,
attention,
memory and
motivation. Partly
because of its
muscle-activating
function, but also because of its functions in the autonomic nervous
system and brain, a large number of important drugs exert their effects by
altering cholinergic transmission. Numerous venoms and
toxins produced by plants,
animals, and bacteria, as well as chemical nerve agents such as Sarin,
cause harm by inactivating or hyperactivating muscles via their influences
on the neuromuscular junction. Drugs that act on muscarinic acetylcholine
receptors, such as atropine, can be poisonous in large quantities, but in
smaller doses they are commonly used to treat certain heart conditions and
eye problems. Scopolamine, which acts mainly on muscarinic receptors in
the brain, can cause delirium and amnesia. The addictive qualities of
nicotine are derived from its effects on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
in the brain.
Acetylcholine as a Neuromodulator: Cholinergic Signaling Shapes Nervous
System
Ed
Boyden: Light Switch for Neurons (youtube)
Sensory Neurons
-
Somatosensory
System
Neural Oscillation is rhythmic or repetitive neural
activity in the central nervous system. Neural tissue can generate
oscillatory activity in many ways, driven either by mechanisms within
individual neurons or by interactions between neurons. In individual
neurons, oscillations can appear either as oscillations in membrane
potential or as rhythmic patterns of action potentials, which then produce
oscillatory activation of post-synaptic neurons. At the level of neural
ensembles, synchronized activity of large numbers of neurons can give rise
to macroscopic oscillations, which can be observed in an
electroencephalogram. Oscillatory activity in groups of neurons generally
arises from feedback connections between the neurons that result in the
synchronization of their firing patterns. The interaction between neurons
can give rise to oscillations at a different frequency than the firing
frequency of individual neurons. A well-known example of macroscopic
neural oscillations is
alpha
activity.
Gamma Waves is a pattern of neural oscillation in
humans with a frequency between
25 and 100 Hz, though 40 Hz is typical.
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in
the mammalian central nervous system. Its principal role is reducing
neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system. In humans, GABA is
also directly responsible for the regulation of muscle tone.
Glutamate Receptor are synaptic receptors located
primarily on the membranes of neuronal cells. Glutamate (the conjugate
base of glutamic acid) is abundant in the human body, but particularly in
the nervous system and especially prominent in the human brain where it is
the body's most prominent neurotransmitter, the brain's main excitatory
neurotransmitter, and also the precursor for GABA, the brain's main
inhibitory neurotransmitter. Glutamate receptors are responsible for the
glutamate-mediated postsynaptic excitation of neural cells, and are
important for neural communication, memory formation, learning, and
regulation.
Glutamate System is a
fast-signaling system that is very important for
information processing in neuronal
networks of the neocortex and
hippocampus in particular. Glutamate is very much involved in the
process of
long-term
potentiation, which is a neuronal model of memory. Glutamate is a
powerful excitatory neurotransmitter that is released by nerve cells in
the brain. It is responsible for sending signals between nerve cells, and
under normal conditions it plays an important role in
learning and
memory.
Glutamate as a neurotransmitter refers to the anion of
glutamic acid in its role as a neurotransmitter: a chemical that nerve
cells use to
send signals to other cells. It is by a wide margin the most
abundant neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system. It is used by
every major excitatory function in the vertebrate brain, accounting in
total for well over 90% of the synaptic connections in the human brain. It
also serves as the primary neurotransmitter for some localized brain
regions, such as cerebellum granule cells.
Serotonin.
AMPA is a compound that
is a specific agonist for the AMPA receptor, where it mimics the effects
of the neurotransmitter glutamate. There are several types of
glutamatergic ion channels in the central nervous system including AMPA,
kainic acid and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) channels. In the
synapse, these receptors serve very different purposes. AMPA can be used
experimentally to distinguish the activity of one receptor from the other
in order to understand their differing functions. AMPA generates fast
excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP). AMPA activates AMPA receptors
that are non-selective cationic channels allowing the passage of Na+ and
K+ and therefore have an equilibrium potential near 0 mV. (AMPA stands
for, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid).
AMPA Receptor is
an ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate that mediates fast
synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). It has been
traditionally classified as a non-
NMDA-type
receptor, along with the
kainate receptor. Its name is derived from its ability to be activated
by the artificial glutamate analog AMPA. Associated with learning, memory,
behavior and mood.
Neuroendocrine
Cell are
cells that
receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or
neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message
molecules (hormones) to the blood. In this way they bring about an
integration between the nervous system and the
endocrine system, a process
known as neuroendocrine integration.
Nervous Tissue: 1. Identify neurons and understand the functional
relationship between the soma and cell processes. 2. Distinguish between
glial cells and neurons and know the different functions of these
supporting glial cells. 3. Identify and understand the connective tissue
elements of the central and peripheral nervous systems. 4. Distinguish
between specific organs/structures in the central and peripheral nervous
systems (i.e. cerebellum, peripheral nerve, autonomic ganglion).
Nero-Feedback
Remake, Refill, Reuse: Recycling at the Synapse Revealed. A neuron,
when activated, propagates an electrical signal. But that signal cannot
cross the synapse -- the junction between two neurons. So, communication
from one neuron to the next is accomplished by the release of tiny
membrane capsules containing signaling chemicals called neurotransmitters
across the synapse. The electrical signal triggers these capsules, called
vesicles, to fuse with membrane at the neuron's pre-synaptic terminal,
thereby releasing neurotransmitters into the cleft between the two cells.
The neurotransmitters travel across the cleft, then activate receptors in
the post-synaptic neuron, triggering an electrical signal in that next
cell. Because the neurotransmitter signal goes in one direction -- from
the pre-synaptic neuron to the post-synaptic one -- vesicles must be
re-formed for the process to continue. "Recycling is a critical process to
keep synapses functional. Vesicle recycling involves three steps: First,
lipid membrane must be pinched off from the neuron's membrane to form
vesicles, a process called endocytosis. Then, the vesicles must be
refilled with neurotransmitter. Finally, filled vesicles must be
transported to the release site. Although endocytosis has been
well-studied, little was known about the refilling process. Neurons can
form excitatory connections or inhibitory ones, depending on which
neurotransmitters they release across the synapse. The neurotransmitter
glutamate passes along an excitatory signal, meaning that it boosts the
chance that the electrical signal from the first cell will be passed along
to the second. The neurotransmitters GABA and glycine, on the other hand,
transmit an inhibitory message, telling the subsequent cell not to fire.
The vesicular GABA uptake rate was estimated using a special technique
called caged GABA compound UV photolysis. The researchers injected GABA
that was "caged" by a synthetic compound that prevents it from refilling
vesicles, into the pre-synaptic terminal. The neurotransmitter's release
from the cage is controlled by UV illumination, which provides the energy
to change the synthetic compound's 3D structure. Using a flash of UV
light, the scientists could release the GABA into the pre-synaptic
terminal at a specific moment and then measure the rate of uptake of GABA
back into the vesicles. The time taken to refill the vesicles with GABA is
nearly identical to the overall time taken for a synapse to recover from
synaptic depression -- a neuron's inability to fire because the vesicles
carrying the message across the synapse are used up. This implies that
most of the recovery time is devoted to refilling the vesicles. In
contrast, reforming the vesicles takes relatively less time. Vesicle
refilling is time consuming because GABA is concentrated 10-100 times
inside the vesicle, compared to the rest of the cell, using molecular
pumps. Therefore, the researchers concluded that the slow rate of
refilling vesicles with GABA can be a rate-limiting step for the
neurotransmitter recycling process at inhibitory synapses. Since all
inhibitory neurons in the brain use either GABA or glycine, a
neurotransmitter which is recycled in the same way as GABA and refilled
into vesicles using the same molecular pump, this principle likely applies
to all inhibitory neurons in the brain. This suggests that the vesicle
refilling process is crucial to maintaining many important brain
functions.
Neurometrics is the science of measuring the
underlying organization of the
brain's electrical activity. Certain
brainwave frequencies are associated with general psychological processes.
EEGs are used to measure the brain waves.
A new means of neuronal communication discovered in the human brain.
An international research group has discovered in the human brain a new
functional coupling mechanism between
neurons, which
may serve as a communication channel between brain regions. Neuronal
oscillations are an essential part of the functioning of the human brain.
They regulate the communication between neural networks and the processing
of information carried out by the brain by pacing neuronal groups and
synchronising brain regions. High-frequency oscillations with frequencies
over 100 Hertz are known to indicate the activity of small neuronal
populations. However, up to now, they have been considered to be
exclusively a local phenomenon. The findings of the European research
project demonstrate that also high-frequency oscillations over
100 Hertz synchronize
across several brain regions. This important finding reveals that
strictly-timed communication between brain regions can be achieved by
high-frequency oscillations. The researchers observed that high-frequency
oscillations were synchronised between neuronal groups with a similar
architecture of brain structures across subjects, but occurring in
individual frequency bands. Carrying out a visual task resulted in the
synchronisation of high-frequency oscillations in the specific brain
regions responsible for the task execution. These observations suggest
that high-frequency oscillations convey within the brain 'information
packages' from one small neuronal group to another. The discovery of
high-frequency oscillations synchronised between brain regions is the
first evidence of the transmission and reception of such information
packages in a context broader than individual locations in the brain. The
finding also helps to understand how the healthy brain processes
information and how this processing is altered in brain diseases.
Individual neurons mix multiple RNA edits of key synapse protein, fly
study finds. Neurons stochastically generated up to eight different
versions of a protein regulating neurotransmitter release, which could
vary how they communicate with other cells. Neurons are talkers. They each
communicate with fellow neurons, muscles or other cells by releasing
neurotransmitter chemicals at "synapse" junctions, ultimately producing
functions ranging from emotions to motions.
Brainwave Entrainment
is a colloquialism for 'neural entrainment', which denotes how the
aggregate oscillation
frequency, resulting from synchronous electrical
activity among ensembles of cortical neurons, can adjust to synchronize
with the periodic vibration of an external
stimulus, such as a
sustained
acoustic frequency perceived as pitch, a regularly repeating pattern of
intermittent sounds perceived as
rhythm, or a regularly intermittent flashing light.
Volume Control in the brain that supports learning and memory. A
'molecular volume knob' regulating electrical signals in the brain helps
with learning and memory. Synapses are tiny contact points that allow
neurons in the brain to communicate at different frequencies. The brain
converts electrical inputs from the neurons into chemical
neurotransmitters that travel across these synaptic spaces. The amount of
neurotransmitter released changes the numbers and patterns of neurons
activated within circuits of the brain. That reshaping of synaptic
connection strength is how learning happens and how memories are formed.
Two functions support these processes of memory and learning. One, known
as facilitation, is a series of increasingly rapid spikes that amplifies
the signals that change a synapse's shape. The other, depression, reduces
the signals. Together, these two forms of plasticity keep the brain in
balance and prevent neurological disorders such as seizures. Beyond
discovering that the electrical signals which flow across synapses in the
brain's hippocampus are analog, the Dartmouth research also identified the
molecule that regulates the electrical signals. The molecule -- known as
Kvß1 -- was previously shown to regulate potassium currents, but was not
known to have any role in the synapse controlling the shape of electrical
signals. These findings help explain why loss of Kvß1 molecules had
previously been shown to negatively impact learning, memory and sleep in
mice and fruit flies. The research also reveals the processes that allow
the brain to have such high computational power at such low energy. A
single, analog electrical impulse can carry multi-bit information,
allowing greater control with low frequency signals.
Grey Matter - White Matter
Grey
Matter is a major component of the
central nervous system, consisting
of
neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as
unmyelinated axons),
glial cells (astroglia and oligodendrocytes),
synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter,
in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated
axons, while white matter contains relatively very few cell bodies and is
composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axon tracts. The colour
difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue,
grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or
pinkish hues, which come from
capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell
bodies.
Worldwide scientific collaboration unveils genetic architecture of gray
matter.
Gyrification is the process of forming the characteristic folds of the
cerebral cortex The peak of such a fold is called a gyrus (plural: gyri),
and its trough is called a sulcus (plural: sulci). The neurons of the
cerebral cortex reside in a thin layer of 'gray matter', only 2–4 mm
thick, at the surface of the brain. Much of the interior volume is
occupied by 'white matter', which consists of long axonal projections to
and from the
cortical neurons residing near the surface. Gyrification
allows a larger cortical surface area and hence greater cognitive
functionality to fit inside a smaller cranium.
Development.
Thalamus
is the large mass of gray matter in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of
the brain with several functions such as relaying of
sensory signals,
including
motor signals, to the
cerebral cortex, and the regulation of
consciousness,
sleep, and alertness. It is a midline
symmetrical structure of two halves, within the vertebrate brain, situated
between the
cerebral cortex and the midbrain.
Hypothalamus.
Voxel-Based Morphometry is a comparison of the local
concentration of gray matter between two groups of subjects.
White
Matter refers to axon tracts and commissures. Long thought to be
passive tissue, it actively affects learning and brain functions,
modulating the distribution of action potentials, acting as a relay and
coordinating communication between different brain regions. White matter
is named for its relatively light appearance resulting from the lipid
content of myelin. However, the tissue of the freshly cut brain appears
pinkish white to the naked eye because myelin is composed largely of lipid
tissue veined with capillaries. Its white color in prepared specimens is
due to its usual preservation in formaldehyde.
Concussions.
Brain’s White Matter is the tissue that connects and protects
neurons emanating from the
Anterior Cingulate Cortex, is a region of particular
importance for
rational decision-making and effortful
problem-solving.
Cingulum Bundle is a prominent white matter tract that interconnects
frontal, parietal, and medial temporal sites, while also linking
subcortical nuclei to the cingulate gyrus. Despite its apparent
continuity, the cingulum’s composition continually changes as fibres join
and leave the bundle.
Cingulum in the Brain is a collection of white matter, fibers
projecting from the cingulate gyrus to the
entorhinal
cortex in the brain, allowing for communication between components of
the
limbic system. It forms the white matter core of
the cingulate gyrus, following it from the subcallosal gyrus of the
frontal lobe beneath the rostrum of corpus callosum to the parahippocampal
gyrus and uncus of the temporal lobe.
Neurons of the
cingulum receive afferent fibers from the parts of the
thalamus that are associated with the
spinothalamic tract. This, in addition to the fact that the cingulum is a
central structure in learning to correct mistakes, indicates that the
cingulum is involved in appraisal of pain and reinforcement of behavior
that reduces it. Cingulotomy, the surgical severing of the anterior
cingulum, is a form of psychosurgery used to treat depression and OCD. The
cingulum was one of the earliest identified brain structures.
Laughter.
Developmental increases in white matter network controllability support a
growing diversity of brain dynamics.
What lies between grey and white in the brain. Making the superficial
white matter visible in the living human brain. Traditionally,
neuroscience regards the brain as being made up of two basic tissue types.
Billions of neurons make up the grey matter, forming a thin layer on the
brain's surface. These neuronal cells are interlinked in a mindboggling
network by hundreds of millions of white matter connections, running in
bundles, deeper in the brain. Until very recently, not much was known
about the interface between the white and grey matter -- the so-called
superficial white matter -- because methods were lacking to study it in
living human brains. Yet, previous investigations had suggested the region
to be implicated in devastating conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and
autism. We demonstrated that the superficial white matter contains a lot
of iron. It is known that iron is necessary for the process of myelination
Brain Imaging - Seeing the Brain beneath the Surface
Medical Imaging is the technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body for
clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology).
Neuro Imaging is the use of various techniques to
either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/pharmacology
of the
nervous system. It is a relatively new discipline within medicine,
neuroscience, and psychology. Physicians who
specialize in the performance and interpretation of
neuroimaging in the clinical setting are neuroradiologists.
Electroencephalography or
EEG, is an
electrophysiological monitoring method to record
electrical activity of
the brain.
EEG
Info -
Electrocardiography ECG or EKG (
Heart)
-
Sleep Monitoring
Electrocorticography
is a type of electrophysiological monitoring that uses electrodes placed
directly on the exposed surface of the brain to record electrical activity
from the
cerebral cortex. (ECoG).
Positron Emission Tomography is a nuclear medicine,
functional imaging technique that is used to observe metabolic processes
in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by
a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into the
body on a biologically active molecule.
Three-dimensional images of tracer
concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis.
In modern PET-CT scanners, three dimensional imaging is often accomplished
with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the same
session, in the same machine. (
PET).
Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a medical imaging
technique used in radiology to form
pictures of the anatomy and the
physiological processes of the body in both health and disease. MRI
scanners use strong magnetic fields,
radio waves, and field gradients to
generate images of the inside of the body. (
MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
Fiber Optic Light-Based Sensor measures tiny magnetic fields such as
those produced when neurons fire in the brain.
Proton NMR is the application of nuclear magnetic resonance
in NMR spectroscopy with respect to hydrogen-1 nuclei within the molecules
of a substance, in order to determine the structure of its molecules. In
samples where natural hydrogen (H) is used, practically all the hydrogen
consists of the isotope 1H (hydrogen-1; i.e. having a proton for a
nucleus). A full 1H atom is called protium.
Proton Magnetic
Resonance Spectroscopy in the Brain (PDF)
Diffusion MRI -
Electron Microscopes
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography is a
nuclear medicine tomographic imaging technique using gamma rays. It is
very similar to conventional nuclear medicine planar imaging using a gamma
camera. However, it is able to provide true 3D information. This
information is typically presented as cross-sectional slices through the
patient, but can be freely reformatted or manipulated as required.
CT Scan makes use of
computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different
angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices")
of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing the user to see inside the
object without cutting.
EMI-
AT Scan (wiki)
Tomography refers to imaging by sections or
sectioning, through the use of any kind of penetrating wave. The method is
used in radiology, archaeology, biology, atmospheric science, geophysics,
oceanography, plasma physics, materials science, astrophysics, quantum
information, and other areas of science. In most cases the production of
these images is based on the mathematical procedure tomographic
reconstruction.
X-Rays is a form of
electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a
wavelength ranging from
0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the
range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of
UV
Rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. The X-rays we
detect from the
Sun do not come from the
Sun's surface, but from the solar corona, which is the upper layer of the
Sun's atmosphere. Only very hot gases can emit X-rays, and the corona, at
millions of degrees, is hot enough to emit X-rays, while the much cooler
surface of the Sun is not.
X-ray Eyes.
Neuroradiology is a subspecialty of radiology
focusing on the diagnosis and characterization of abnormalities of the
central and peripheral nervous system, spine, and head and neck using
neuroimaging techniques.
Radiology uses Medical imaging to diagnose and treat
diseases seen within the body. A variety of imaging techniques such as
X-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), nuclear medicine
including positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) are used to diagnose and/or treat diseases. Interventional
radiology is the performance of (usually minimally invasive) medical
procedures with the guidance of imaging technologies.
Radiation Exposure.
Radiography is an imaging technique using X-rays to view the internal
form of an object. To create the image, a beam of X-rays, a form of
electromagnetic radiation, are produced by an X-ray generator and are
projected toward the object. A certain amount of X-ray is absorbed by the
object, dependent on its density and structural composition. The X-rays
that pass through the object are captured behind the object by a detector
(either photographic film or a digital detector). The generation of flat
two dimensional images by this technique is called projectional
radiography. In computed tomography (CT scanning) an X-ray source and its
associated detectors rotate around the subject which itself moves through
the conical X-ray beam produced. Any given point within the subject is
crossed from many directions by many different beams at different times.
Information regarding attenuation of these beams is collated and subjected
to computation to generate two dimensional images in three planes (axial,
coronal, and sagittal) which can be further processed to produce a three
dimensional image. Applications of radiography include medical (or
"diagnostic") radiography and industrial radiography. Similar techniques
are used in airport security (where "body scanners" generally use
backscatter X-ray).
Neutron Imaging.
Photoacoustic Imaging is a biomedical imaging modality based on the
photoacoustic effect. In photoacoustic imaging,
non-ionizing laser pulses are delivered into biological tissues
(when
radio frequency pulses are used,
the technology is referred to as
thermoacoustic imaging). Some of the delivered energy will be absorbed
and converted into heat, leading to transient thermoelastic expansion and
thus wideband (i.e. MHz)
ultrasonic emission.
The generated ultrasonic waves are detected by ultrasonic transducers and
then analyzed to produce images. It is known that optical absorption is
closely associated with physiological properties, such as hemoglobin
concentration and oxygen saturation. As a result, the magnitude of the
ultrasonic emission (i.e. photoacoustic signal), which is proportional to
the local energy deposition, reveals physiologically specific optical
absorption contrast. 2D or 3D images of the targeted areas can then be
formed. (Laser Induced Sound Waves).
Photoacoustic Effect is the formation of
sound waves following light
absorption in a material sample. In order to obtain this effect the light
intensity must vary, either periodically (modulated light) or as a single
flash (
pulsed light). The photoacoustic
effect is quantified by measuring the formed sound (pressure changes) with
appropriate detectors, such as microphones or
piezoelectric sensors. The time
variation of the electric output (current or voltage) from these detectors
is the photoacoustic signal. These measurements are useful to determine
certain properties of the studied sample. For example, in photoacoustic
spectroscopy, the photoacoustic signal
is used to obtain the actual absorption of light in either opaque or
transparent objects. It is useful for substances in extremely low
concentrations, because very strong pulses of light from a
laser can be used to increase sensitivity
and very narrow wavelengths can be used for specificity. Furthermore,
photoacoustic measurements serve as a valuable research tool in the study
of the heat evolved in photochemical reactions (see: photochemistry),
particularly in the study of photosynthesis. Most generally,
electromagnetic radiation of any kind can give rise to a photoacoustic
effect. This includes the whole range of electromagnetic frequencies, from
gamma radiation and X-rays to microwave and radio. Still, much of the
reported research and applications, utilizing the photoacoustic effect, is
concerned with the near ultraviolet/visible and infrared spectral regions.
Functional Imaging is a medical imaging technique of detecting or
measuring changes in metabolism, blood flow, regional chemical
composition, and absorption. As opposed to structural imaging, functional
imaging centers on revealing physiological activities within a certain
tissue or organ by employing medical image modalities that very often use
tracers or probes to reflect spatial distribution of them within the body.
These tracers are often analogous to some chemical compounds, like
glucose, within the body. To achieve this, isotopes are used because they
have similar chemical and biological characteristics. By appropriate
proportionality, the nuclear medicine physicians can determine the real
intensity of certain substance within the body to evaluate the risk or
danger of developing some diseases.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a functional
neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures brain activity
by detecting changes associated with blood flow.
Functional
Neuroimaging is the use of neuroimaging technology to measure an
aspect of brain function, often with a view to understanding the
relationship between activity in certain brain areas and specific mental
functions.
Patch-type brain wave sensor that can easily be attached just like
applying a cool soft gel sheet to the forehead.
Diffuse Optical Imaging is a method of imaging using
near-infrared spectroscopy or NIRS or fluorescence-based methods. When
used to create 3D volumetric models of the imaged material DOI is referred
to as diffuse optical tomography, whereas 2D imaging methods are
classified as diffuse
optical topography. The technique has many
applications to neuroscience, sports medicine, wound monitoring, and
cancer detection. Typically DOI techniques monitor changes in
concentrations of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin and may
additionally measure redox states of cytochromes. The technique may also
be referred to as diffuse optical tomography (DOT), near infrared optical
tomography (NIROT) or fluorescence diffuse optical tomography (FDOT),
depending on the usage. In neuroscience, functional measurements made
using NIR wavelengths, DOI techniques may classify as functional near
infrared spectroscopy fNIRS.
Enlitic uses deep
learning to analyze radiographs and CT and MRI scans.
Optical Tomography is a form of computed tomography that creates a
digital volumetric model of an object by reconstructing images made from
light transmitted and scattered through an object. Optical tomography is
used mostly in medical imaging research. Optical tomography in industry is
used as a sensor of thickness and internal structure of semiconductors.
Optical Coherence Tomography is an established
medical imaging
technique that uses light to capture micrometer-resolution,
three-dimensional images from within optical scattering media (e.g.,
biological tissue). Optical coherence tomography is based on low-coherence
interferometry, typically employing near-infrared light. The use of
relatively long wavelength light allows it to penetrate into the
scattering medium. Confocal microscopy, another optical technique,
typically penetrates less deeply into the sample but with higher
resolution. Depending on the properties of the light source (superluminescent
diodes, ultrashort pulsed lasers, and supercontinuum lasers have been
employed), optical coherence tomography has achieved sub-micrometer
resolution (with very wide-spectrum sources emitting over a ~100 nm
wavelength range).
Spatial Intelligence.
Deep-Brain Exploration with Nanomaterial. Near-infrared (NIR) light
applied above the skull can easily pass through brain tissue with minimal
scattering and reach deep structures. Up-conversion nanoparticles (UCNPs;
blue) in the tissue can absorb this light and locally emit visible light
sufficient to activate light-sensitive channels expressed in nearby
neurons.
Industrial Process Imaging or process tomography are methods used to
form an image of a cross section of vessel or pipe in a chemical
engineering or mineral processing, or petroleum extraction or refining
plant. Process imaging is used for the development of process equipment
such as filters, separators and conveyor, as well as monitoring of
production plant including flow rate measurement. As well as conventional
tomographic methods widely used in medicine such as X-ray computed
tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and gamma ray tomography, and
ultra-sound tomography, new and emerging methods such as electrical
capacitance tomography and magnetic induction tomography and electrical
resistivity tomography (similar to medical electrical impedance
tomography) are also used.
Process
Tomography consists of tomographic imaging of systems, such as process
pipes in industry. In tomography the 3D distribution of some physical
quantity in the object is determined. There is a widespread need to get
tomographic information about process. This information can be used, for
example, in the design and control of processes. Tomography involves
taking measurements around the periphery of an object (e.g. process vessel
or patient) to determine what is going on inside. The best known technique
is CAT scanning in medicine, however process tomography instrumentation
needs to be cheaper, faster and more robust.
Research -
Microscopes
Organoid
is a miniaturized and simplified version of an organ produced in vitro in
three dimensions that shows realistic micro-anatomy. They are derived from
one or a few cells from a tissue, embryonic stem cells or induced
pluripotent stem cells, which can self-organize in three-dimensional
culture owing to their self-renewal and differentiation capacities. The
technique for growing organoids has rapidly improved since the early 2010s,
and it was named by The Scientist as one of the biggest scientific advancements of 2013.
Stimulating the Brain - Small Electrical Pulses - Magnets
Electrical Brain Stimulation is a form of
electrotherapy and technique used in research and clinical neurobiology to
stimulate a
neuron or
neural network in the brain through the direct or
indirect
excitation of its cell membrane by using an
electric current. It
is used for research or for therapeutical purposes.
Noninvasive
Brain Stimulation.
Deep Brain Stimulation involves the
implantation of a medical device called a neurostimulator (sometimes
referred to as a 'brain pacemaker'), which sends electrical impulses,
through
implanted electrodes, to specific targets in the brain (brain
nuclei) for the treatment of movement and neuropsychiatric disorders.
Brain Implants
-
Good Vibrations -
Sound Waves -
Light
Neuromodulation is the
alteration of nerve activity through targeted
delivery of a
stimulus, such as electrical stimulation or
chemical agents,
to specific neurological sites in the body. It is carried out to normalize
– or modulate – nervous tissue function.
Neuromodulation is an evolving
therapy that can involve a range of electromagnetic stimuli such as a
magnetic field (rTMS), an electric current, or a drug instilled directly
in the subdural space (intrathecal drug delivery). Emerging applications
involve targeted introduction of genes or gene regulators and light (
optogenetics),
and by 2014, these had been at minimum demonstrated in mammalian models,
or first-in-human data had been acquired. The most clinical experience has
been with electrical stimulation. Neuromodulation, whether electrical or
magnetic, employs the body's natural biological response by stimulating
nerve cell activity that can influence populations of nerves by releasing
transmitters, such as
dopamine, or other chemical messengers such as the
peptide Substance P, that can modulate the excitability and firing
patterns of neural circuits. There may also be more direct
electrophysiological effects on neural membranes as the mechanism of
action of electrical interaction with neural elements. The end effect is a
"normalization" of a neural network function from its perturbed state.
Presumed mechanisms of action for neurostimulation include depolarizing
blockade, stochastic normalization of neural firing, axonal blockade,
reduction of neural firing keratosis, and suppression of neural network
oscillations. Although the exact mechanisms of neurostimulation are not
known, the empirical effectiveness has led to considerable application
clinically. Existing and emerging neuromodulation treatments also include
application in medication-resistant epilepsy, chronic head pain
conditions, and functional therapy ranging from bladder and bowel or
respiratory control to improvement of sensory deficits, such as hearing
(cochlear implants and auditory brainstem implants) and vision (retinal
implants). Technical improvements include a trend toward minimally
invasive (or noninvasive) systems; as well as smaller, more sophisticated
devices that may have automated feedback control, and conditional
compatibility with magnetic resonance imaging. Neuromodulation therapy has
been investigated for other chronic conditions, such as Alzheimer's
disease, depression, chronic pain, and as an adjunctive treatment in
recovery from stroke.
Brain Waves -
Brainwaves -
Brain Computer
Interface -
MagnetsElectroceutical
is a device that treats ailments with electrical impulses.
Bioelectronics is a field of research in the convergence of biology
and electronics.
Magneto Encephalography is a functional neuroimaging
technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced
by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very
sensitive magnetometers.
Trans-Cranial Magnetic Stimulation is a
magnetic method used to stimulate small regions of the brain. During a
TMS procedure, a magnetic field generator, or "coil", is placed near the
head of the person receiving the treatment. The coil produces small
electric currents in the region of the brain just under the coil via
electromagnetic induction. The coil is
connected to a pulse generator, or stimulator, that delivers electric
current to the coil.
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation is a form of
neurostimulation which uses constant, low current delivered to the brain
area of interest via electrodes on the scalp.
Reactivation of latent working memories with transcranial magnetic
stimulation.
Deep brain stimulation instantly improves arm and hand function post-brain
injury. Deep brain stimulation may provide immediate improvement in
arm and hand strength and function weakened by traumatic brain injury or
stroke. Scientists hypothesized that stimulating the motor thalamus -- a
structure nested deep in the brain that acts as a key relay hub of
movement control -- using DBS could help restore movements that are
essential for tasks of daily living, such as object grasping. However,
because the theory has not been tested before, they first had to test it
in monkeys, which are the only animals that have the same organization of
the connections between the motor cortex and the muscles as humans.
Good Vibrations.
Wireless Magnetothermal Deep Brain Stimulation. Wireless deep brain
stimulation of well-defined neuronal populations could facilitate the
study of intact brain circuits and the treatment of neurological
disorders. Here, we demonstrate minimally invasive and remote neural
excitation through the activation of the heat-sensitive capsaicin receptor
TRPV1 by magnetic nanoparticles. When exposed to alternating magnetic
fields, the nanoparticles dissipate heat generated by hysteresis,
triggering widespread and reversible firing of TRPV1(+) neurons. Wireless
magnetothermal stimulation in the ventral tegmental area of mice evoked
excitation in subpopulations of neurons in the targeted brain region and
in structures receiving excitatory projections. The nanoparticles
persisted in the brain for over a month, allowing for chronic stimulation
without the need for implants and connectors.
Electroconvulsive Therapy - Electroshock Therapy -
Electric
Field Therapy - Cancer
Wirelessly rechargeable soft brain implant controls brain cells.
Researchers have invented a smartphone-controlled soft brain implant that
can be recharged wirelessly from outside the body. It enables long-term
neural circuit manipulation without the need for periodic disruptive
surgeries to replace the battery of the implant. Scientists believe this
technology can help uncover and treat psychiatric disorders and
neurodegenerative diseases such
as addiction, depression, and Parkinson's.
Non-invasive nerve stimulation boosts learning of foreign language sounds.
A simple earbud-like device that imperceptibly stimulates the brain could
significantly improve the wearer's ability to learn the sounds of a new
language. Researchers used a non-invasive technique called transcutaneous
vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS), in which a small stimulator is placed in
the outer ear and can activate the vagus nerve using unnoticeable
electrical pulses to stimulate one of the nerve's nearby branches.
New neuroimaging technique studies brain stimulation for depression. A
team of psychiatrists and biomedical engineers applied an emerging
functional neuroimaging technology, known as
diffuse optical tomography,
to better understand how rTMS works so they can begin to improve the brain
stimulation procedure's effectiveness in treating depression. Repetitive
transcranial magnetic stimulation, or rTMS, was FDA approved in 2008 as a
safe and effective noninvasive treatment for severe depression resistant
to antidepressant medications. A small coil positioned near the scalp
generates repetitive, pulsed magnetic waves that pass through the skull
and stimulate brain cells to relieve symptoms of depression. The procedure
has few side effects and is typically prescribed as an alternative or
supplemental therapy when multiple antidepressant medications and/or
psychotherapy do not work.
Electricity from electric eels may transfer genetic material to nearby
animals. Researchers have discovered that electric eels can alter the
genes of tiny fish larvae with their electric shock. Their findings help
to better understand electroporation, a method by which genes can be
transported using electricity.
Electroporation or electropermeabilization is a technique in which an
electrical field is applied to cells in order to increase the permeability
of the cell membrane. This may allow chemicals, drugs, electrode arrays or
DNA to be introduced into the cell, also called
electrotransfer.
New tool activates deep brain neurons by combining ultrasound, genetics.
It is the first work to show that
sonothermogenetics can control behavior by stimulating a specific
target deep in the brain.
Brain Injuries
Brain Damage is the destruction or degeneration of
brain cells. Brain injuries occur due to a wide range of internal and
external factors. A common category with the greatest number of injuries
is
traumatic brain injury.
Traumatic
Brain Injury occurs when an external force traumatically injures the
brain.
Intracranial Traumatic Brain Injury occurs when an
external force traumatically injures the brain.
Stroke -
Disease -
Coma
-
Alzheimer's -
Toxins -
Brain
Maintenance -
Focus Problems
-
Hemisphere Disconnection Affects
-
Left Hemisphere Brain Injury
Blunt
Trauma is physical
trauma to a
body part, either by impact, injury or
physical attack. The
latter is usually referred to as
blunt force
trauma. Blunt trauma is the initial trauma, from which develops
more specific types such as
contusions,
abrasions,
lacerations, and/or
bone
fractures. Blunt trauma is contrasted with penetrating trauma, in
which an object such as a projectile or knife enters the body.
Brain Injury Rehabilitation -
Recovery after Brain Injury -
Apps for Brain Injuries (PDF) -
Peptide hydrogels could help Heal Traumatic Brain Injuries -
Stem Cells
Brain Injury Explanation -
Brain Injuries Heal Faster when people Move -
Stimulation -
EEG
Phineas P. Gage was an American railroad construction foreman
remembered for his improbable survival of an accident in which a
large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying
much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported
effects on his personality and behavior over the remaining 12 years of his
life—effects sufficiently profound (for a time at least) that friends
saw him as "no longer Gage. (1823–1860).
Man missing 90% of his brain leads a normal life. No it's not a
republican. This exceedingly rare
condition has left a man called Jonathan with a distinctive way of
speaking and a walk that is slightly awkward. He also lacks the balance to
ride a bicycle. But all that hasn't kept him from living on his own,
holding down an office job and charming pretty much every person he meets.
Cerebellum is the
portion of the brain in the back of the head between the cerebrum and the
brain stem. The cerebellum plays an important role in
motor control or controls
balance for walking and standing, and other complex motor functions. It
may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and
language as well as emotional control such as regulating fear and pleasure
responses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly
established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but
contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives
input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the
brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity. Cerebellar
damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and
motor learning in humans.
Concussion
is defined as a
head injury with a temporary
loss of
brain function. Symptoms include a variety of physical, cognitive, and
emotional symptoms, which may not be recognized if subtle. A variety of
signs accompany concussion including headache, feeling in a fog, and
emotional changeability. Physical signs (such as loss of consciousness or
amnesia),
behavioral changes (such as irritability),
cognitive impairment
(such as slowed reaction times), or sleep disturbances. Fewer than 10% of
sports-related concussions among children are associated with loss of
consciousness.
Concussions in Sports -
Inflammation -
Impact Test App for Minor Concussions
Eye-Sync Eye Tracking
Technology helps diagnose concussions on the spot. 60-second tool to
objectively screen for ocular-motor synchronization, a key impairment in
concussion.
Molecules in Spit may be able to Diagnose and Predict Length of
Concussions.
Scientists discover Concussion Biomarker by measuring the brain’s
ability to process sound or auditory response. Children who sustained
concussions had on average a 35 percent smaller neural response to pitch.
Soccer heading linked to measurable decline in brain function. New
research links soccer heading -- where players hit the ball with their
head -- to a measurable decline in the microstructure and function of the
brain over a two-year period.
Fast MRIs offer alternative to CT scans for Pediatric Head Injuries.
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy is a progressive
degenerative disease found in people who have had a severe blow or
repeated blows to the head. The disease was previously called dementia pugilistica (DP), i.e. "punch-drunk," as it was initially found in those
with a history of boxing. CTE has been most commonly found in professional
athletes participating in American football, rugby, ice hockey, boxing,
professional wrestling, stunt performing, bull riding, rodeo, and other
contact sports who have experienced repeated concussions or other brain
trauma. Its presence in domestic violence is also being investigated. It
can affect high school athletes, especially American football players,
following few years of activity. It is a form of tauopathy.
In the quest for a TBI therapy, astrocytes may be the bull’s-eye.
Treatment could aim to raise levels of a neuroprotective molecule, studies
hint. New studies show what happens when an enzyme called
monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is genetically inactivated in
experimental mice. Typically, MAGL breaks down a neuroprotective molecule
called
2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), diminishing the latter's beneficial
effects in the brain. Findings point to the need to develop therapeutic
interventions for inhibition of 2-AG degradation in
astrocytes, cells that enhance the activity of neurons.
Amnesia caused by head injury reversed in early mouse study. A mouse
study designed to shed light on
memory loss in people who experience
repeated head impacts, such as athletes, suggests the condition could
potentially be reversed. The research in mice finds that
amnesia and poor
memory following head injury is due to inadequate reactivation of neurons
involved in forming memories.
Can I have your Brain? The quest for truth on concussions and CTE: Chris Nowinski -
Concussion
Foundation.
Woodpeckers Brain experiences a seemingly catastrophic impact every
time beak meets wood.
Rehabilitation Neuropsychology
of sensory and cognitive function typically involves methods for
retraining neural pathways or
training new neural pathways to regain or
improve
neurocognitive functioning that has been diminished by
disease,
trauma or
stroke.
Repairing nerve cells after injury and in chronic disease. Researchers
discovered a mechanism for repairing damaged nerves during peripheral
neuropathy in mice, wherein the protein Mitf orchestrates nerve repair
after both trauma-induced and chronic nerve damage conditions, like
Charcot Marie Tooth disease. Their findings may inspire novel therapeutics
that bolster repair function and heal peripheral neuropathy -- even in
hereditary and developmental cases. Each year in the United States there
are more than 3 million cases of peripheral neuropathy, wherein nerves
outside of the brain and spinal cord are damaged and cause pain and loss
of feeling in the affected areas. Peripheral neuropathy can occur from
diabetes, injury, genetically inherited disease, infection, and more. Salk
scientists have now uncovered in mice a mechanism for repairing damaged
nerves during peripheral neuropathy. They discovered that the protein Mitf
helps turn on the repair function of specialized nervous system Schwann
cells.
Temporal Lobe Damage.
Individuals with temporal lobes lesions have difficulty placing words or
pictures into categories. Language can be affected by temporal lobe
damage. Left temporal lesions disturb recognition of words. Right temporal
damage can cause a loss of inhibition of talking. The temporal lobes are
on the sides of the brain. They process memories and senses. Temporal lobe
brain tumors can cause memory problems. They might cause someone to see,
taste or smell something that isn't there.
Anger Issues -
Depression.
People with more education have brains that are better able
to find ways around the damage caused by an injury.
Language Disorders.
Researchers using exosome IV to treat traumatic brain injury. A team
of researchers from the University of Georgia’s Regenerative Bioscience
Center has found that neural
exosomes—“cargo”
molecules within the nervous system that carry messages to the brain—can
minimize or even avert progression of traumatic brain injury when used as
part of a new cell-to-cell messaging technology. The finding could result
in the first delivery platform and regenerative treatment for TBI.
O2 & Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy Reverses Brain Damage in Drowned Toddler.
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) is the therapeutic administration of 100%
oxygen at environmental pressures greater than one atmosphere, while
normobaric oxygen therapy (NBOT) is oxygen administered at one atmosphere.
Neuro Skills -
Brain Injury -
Stroke -
BBB
Parallel recovery of consciousness and sleep in acute traumatic brain
injury.
Word and face recognition can be adequately supported with half a brain.
An unprecedented study of brain
plasticity and
visual perception found that people who, as children, had undergone
surgery removing half of their brain correctly recognized differences
between pairs of words or faces more than 80% of the time. Considering the
volume of removed brain tissue, the surprising accuracy highlights the
brain's capacity -- and its limitations -- to
rewire
itself and adapt to dramatic surgery or traumatic injury.
A good sleep for a fresh mind in patients with acute traumatic brain
injury.
Sleeping Knowledge.
Structural Advanced MRI Imaging.
Novel small molecule potently attenuates neuroinflammation in brain and
glial cells. In a preclinical study show that their small molecule
drug, SRI-42127, can potently attenuate the triggers of
neuroinflammation. These experiments in glial cell cultures and mice
now open the door to testing SRI-42127 in models of acute and chronic
neurological injury. Neuroinflammation can worsen outcomes in stroke,
traumatic brain injury or spinal cord injury, as well as accelerate
neurodegenerative diseases like ALS, Parkinson's or Alzheimer's. This
suggests that limiting neuroinflammation may represent a promising new
approach to treat neurological diseases and neuropathic pain that are
driven by
neuroinflammation.
Damage to white matter is linked to worse cognitive outcomes after brain
injury. A new study challenges the idea that gray matter (the neurons
that form the
cerebral cortex) is more important than
white matter (the
myelin covered axons that physically connect neuronal regions) when it
comes to cognitive health and function. The findings may help neurologists
better predict the long-term effects of strokes and other forms of
traumatic brain injury.
New cell therapy improves memory and stops seizures following TBI.
Transplanting new inhibitory
neurons may repair damaged brain circuits.
Transplanted interneurons improve memory precision after traumatic brain
injury. Traumatic brain injuries affect 2 million Americans each year and
cause cell death and inflammation in the brain. People who experience a
head injury often suffer from lifelong memory loss and can develop
epilepsy.
Researchers invent tiny, Light-Powered Wires to Modulate Brain's
Electrical Signals. A new study shows how tiny, light-powered wires
could be fashioned out of silicon to manipulate electrical signaling
between neurons. The research offers a new avenue to shed light on--and
perhaps someday treat--brain disorders.
Neuroscientists explore mysterious 'events' in the brain that open new
avenues for understanding brain injuries and disorders. Using a new
model of brain activity, computational neuroscientists are exploring
striking bursts of activity in the human brain that have not been examined
before. These bursts may have potential to serve as biomarkers for brain
disease and conditions such as depression, schizophrenia, dementia, and
ADHD.
Neuroscientists illuminate how brain cells 'navigate' in the light and
dark. Brain mechanism identified that tracks angular head motion
during navigation. Researchers have discovered how individual and networks
of cells in an area of the brain called the
retrosplenial cortex encode this angular head motion in mice to enable
navigation both during the day and at night.
Implantable, Biodegradable Devices speed Nerve Regeneration in rats.
Peripheral nerve injuries leave people with tingling, numbness and
weakness in their arms, hands and legs. Researchers have developed an
implantable, bioabsorbable device that speeds recovery in rats by
stimulating injured nerves with electricity.
Bioelectronic Medicine. Biodegradable wireless device implant provides
electrical stimulation that speeds nerve regeneration and improves
healing of a damaged nerve. Device delivers pulses of electricity to
damaged nerves in rats after a surgical repair process, accelerating the
regrowth of nerves and enhancing the recovery of muscle strength and
control. The device is the size of a dime and the thickness of a sheet of
paper.
Bioresorbable
is material that may dissolve or be absorbed in the body. Also called
biodegradable, or
naturally-dissolving.
Testing new drugs with “ALS-on-a-chip”. 3-D tissue model replicates
the motor neuron connections affected by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
There is no cure for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a disease that
gradually kills off the motor neurons that control muscles and is
diagnosed in nearly 6,000 people per year in the United States.
Creating Custom Brains from the ground up. The developing forebrain
can then be reconstituted from genetically engineered stem cells
containing the specific genetic modifications desired for study.
Routing Gene Therapy directly into the Brain. A therapeutic technique
to transplant blood-forming (hematopoietic)
stem cells directly
into the brain could herald a revolution in our approach to treating
central nervous system diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.
Apraxia is a
motor disorder caused by damage to the
brain.
Neurointensive Care deals with life-threatening
diseases of the
nervous system, which are those that involve the brain,
spinal cord and nerves.
Blood Brain Barrier -
Water on the Brain
Microglia are a type of glial cell located
throughout the brain and spinal cord. Microglia account for 10–15% of all
cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act
as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous
system (CNS).
Adrenoleukodystrophy is a disease linked to the
X chromosome. It is a
result of
fatty acid
buildup caused by the relevant
enzymes not functioning properly, which then causes damage to the
myelin sheathes of the nerves, resulting in seizures
and hyperactivity. Other side effects include problems with speaking,
listening, and understanding verbal instructions.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis also known as
Lou
Gehrig's disease and
motor neurone disease.
MND is a specific disease
that causes the
death of neurons which control voluntary muscles. Some
also use the term "motor neuron disease" for a group of conditions of
which ALS is the most common. ALS is characterized by stiff muscles,
muscle twitching, and gradually worsening weakness due to muscles
decreasing in size. This results in difficulty in speaking, swallowing,
and eventually breathing.
Strokes - Bleeding - Blockage
Cerebral Hemorrhage
is a type of intracranial
bleed that occurs within the
brain tissue or ventricles. Symptoms can include headache, one sided
weakness, vomiting, seizures, decreased level of consciousness, and neck
stiffness. Often symptoms get worse over time. Fever is also common. In
many cases bleeding is present in both the brain tissue and the
ventricles.
Internal
Bleeding -
Concussions -
Coma
-
Hemispheres
Aneurysm is an outward
bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon, caused
by a localized, abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall. A brain
aneurysm (AN-yoo-riz-um) is a bulge or ballooning in a blood vessel in the
brain. It often looks like a berry hanging on a stem. A brain aneurysm can
leak or rupture, causing
bleeding into the brain
(hemorrhagic stroke).
Clinicians report real-world results on the use of a new device to treat
brain aneurysms. In an international study of patients with brain
aneurysms (
balloon-like bulges in weakened blood
vessels), the Woven Endobridge device had a favorable efficacy and
safety profile.
Embolism is the
lodging of an
embolus,
a blockage-causing piece of material, inside a
blood vessel. The embolus
may be a blood clot (thrombus), a fat globule (fat embolism), a bubble of
air or other gas (gas embolism), or foreign material. An embolism can
cause partial or total
blockage of blood flow in the affected vessel. Such
a blockage (a vascular occlusion) may affect a part of the body distant
from the origin of the embolus. An embolism in which the embolus is a
piece of thrombus is called a thromboembolism. An embolism is usually a
pathological event, i.e., accompanying illness or injury. Sometimes it is
created intentionally for a therapeutic reason, such as to stop bleeding
or to kill a cancerous tumor by stopping its blood supply. Such therapy is called embolization.
Stroke
is when poor
blood flow to the brain results in cell
death. There are two main types of stroke:
ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and
hemorrhagic, due to bleeding. They result in part of the brain not
functioning properly. Signs and symptoms of a stroke may include an
inability to move or feel on one side of the body, problems understanding
or speaking, feeling like the world is spinning, or loss of vision to one
side among others. Signs and symptoms often appear soon after the stroke
has occurred. If symptoms last less than one or two hours it is known as a
transient ischemic attack (TIA). Hemorrhagic strokes may also be
associated with a severe headache.
Every 40
seconds, someone in the U.S. has a stroke. About 795,000 people in the
United States have a stroke each year. Researchers already knew that the
overall rate of stroke in Africa is among the world's highest, with around
316 new cases each year per 100,000 people. (The U.S. rate, by comparison,
is around 246 new cases per 100,000 people, according to the CDC.) But the
study sheds new light on the prevalence of hemorrhagic stroke.
Increased consumption of tobacco and
processed food. The number
of people in Africa with hypertension is projected to rise from 80 million
in 2000 to 150 million by 2025.
High
Blood Pressure. A hemorrhagic stroke is either a brain aneurysm burst
or a weakened blood vessel leak. Blood spills into or around the brain and
creates swelling and pressure, damaging cells and tissue in the brain.
There are two types of hemorrhagic stroke called intracerebal and
subarachnoid. The two types of hemorrhagic strokes are intracerebral
(within the brain) hemorrhage or subarachnoid hemorrhage. Hemorrhagic
stroke occurs when a weakened blood vessel ruptures. Two types of weakened
blood vessels usually cause hemorrhagic stroke: aneurysms and
arteriovenous malformations (AVMs).
New stroke-healing gel helped regrow neurons and blood vessels in mice
with stroke-damaged brains.
Silent Stroke is a stroke that does not have any outward symptoms
associated with stroke, and the patient is typically unaware they have
suffered a stroke. Despite not causing identifiable symptoms a silent
stroke still causes damage to the brain, and places the patient at
increased risk for both transient ischemic attack and major stroke in the
future. (
white matter stroke).
Thrombotic Strokes are strokes caused by a thrombus or
blood clot that develops in the
arteries supplying blood to the brain. This type of stroke is usually seen
in older persons, especially those with high cholesterol and
atherosclerosis (a buildup of fat and lipids inside the walls of blood
vessels) or diabetes.
Global Aphasia
is a severe form of nonfluent aphasia, caused by damage to the left side
of the brain, that affects receptive and expressive
language skills (needed for both written and
oral language) as well as auditory and visual comprehension. Acquired
impairments of communicative abilities are present across all language
modalities, impacting language production, comprehension, and repetition.
Patients with global aphasia may be able to verbalize a few short
utterances and use non-word neologisms, but their overall production
ability is limited. Their ability to repeat words, utterances, or phrases
is also affected. Due to the preservation of the right hemisphere, an
individual with global aphasia may still be able to express themselves
through facial expressions, gestures, and intonation. This type of aphasia
often results from a large lesion of the left perisylvian cortex. The
lesion is caused by an occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery and is
associated with damage to Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and insular
regions which are associated with aspects of language. Global aphasia
typically results from an occlusion to the trunk of the middle cerebral
artery (MCA), which affects a large portion of the perisylvian region of
the left cortex.
Cause. Global aphasia is
usually a result of a thrombotic stroke, which occurs when a blood clot
forms in the brain's blood vessels.
Treatment.
Speech and language therapy is typically the primary treatment for
individuals with aphasia. The goal of speech and language therapy is to
increase the person’s communication abilities to a level functional for
daily life. Goals are chosen based on collaboration between speech
language pathologists, patients, and their family/caregivers. Goals should
be individualized based on the person’s aphasia symptoms and communicative
needs.
Language Disorders.
Brainstem Stroke happens when blood
supply to the
base of the brain is stopped.
This can affect many functions in the body, such as heart rate, breathing,
and blood pressure. There are two main types: ischemic and hemorrhagic .
An ischemic stroke is the most common type. Medical care is needed right
away.
Brainstem Infarction.
Researchers map crystals to advance treatments for stroke, diabetes,
dementia. A team of researchers have mapped the crystal structure of a
protein called 'mitoNEET' and pinpointed how a drug latches on it.
MitoNEET, a key regulator of mitochondrial function and lipid homeostasis.
What happens when the brain loses a hub? Rare experiment during brain
surgery helps researchers better understand
neural
networks. Neuroscientists have obtained the first direct recordings of
the human brain in the minutes before and after a
brain
hub crucial for language meaning was surgically disconnected. The
results reveal the importance of brain hubs in neural networks and the
remarkable way in which the human brain attempts to compensate when a hub
is lost, with immediacy not previously observed.
New hope for sight recovery in stroke survivors. Researchers have used
MRI imaging to map visual brain activity in stroke survivors with
sight loss that gives new hope for
rehabilitation and recovery.
Lost brain function restored in mice after stroke. In an ischemic
stroke, lack of blood flow to the brain causes damage, which rapidly leads
to nerve cell loss that affects large parts of the the vast network of
nerve cells in the brain. This may lead to loss of function such as
paralysis, sensorimotor impairment and vision and speech difficulties, but
also to pain and depression. About 60 per cent of stroke sufferers,
experience lost somatosensori functions such as touch and position sense.
Rodents treated with the
mGluR5
inhibitor regained their somatosensori functions.
Transient Ischemic Attack is a transient episode of neurologic
dysfunction caused by ischemia (
loss of blood flow) – either focal
brain, spinal cord, or retinal – without acute infarction (tissue death). TIAs have the same underlying cause as strokes: a disruption of cerebral
blood flow (CBF), and are often referred to as mini-strokes. Symptoms
caused by a TIA resolve in 24 hours or less. TIA was originally defined
clinically by the temporary nature of less than 24 hours of the associated
neurologic symptoms.
UCLA study shows how brain begins repairs after ‘silent strokes’
Blocking a molecular receptor helps restore brain function.
Smart cells teach Neurons to Heal themselves.
New Stem-Cell based stroke treatment repairs damaged brain tissue.
Reduces brain damage and accelerates the brain's natural healing
tendencies in animal models.
Nerve repair, with help from stem cells. Researchers teamed up to
create a novel approach to surgically repairing injured peripheral nerves
that relies on the versatility of gingiva-derived
mesenchymal stem cells.
A new approach to repairing peripheral nerves marries the regenerating
power of gingiva-derived mesenchymal stem cells with a biological scaffold
to enable the functional recovery of nerves following a facial injury,
according to a study by a cross-disciplinary team from the University of
Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine and Perelman School of Medicine.
Researchers regrow damaged nerves with polymer and protein.
Researchers have created a biodegradable nerve guide -- a polymer tube --
filled with
growth-promoting protein that
can regenerate long sections of damaged nerves, without the need for
transplanting stem cells or a donor nerve.
"A finding suggests that people with more education have brains
that are better able to "find ways around the damage" caused by an
injury."
Controlled scar formation in the brain. When the brain suffers injury
or infection,
glial cells surrounding the affected
site act to preserve the brain's sensitive nerve cells and prevent
excessive damage. A team of researchers has been able to demonstrate the
important role played by the reorganization of the structural and membrane
elements of glial cells. The nervous system lacks the ability to
regenerate nerve cells and is therefore particularly vulnerable to injury.
Following brain injury or infection, various cells have to work together
in a coordinated manner in order to limit damage and enable recovery.
'Astrocytes', the most common type of glial cell found in the central
nervous system, play a key role in the protection of surrounding tissues.
They form part of a defense mechanism known as 'reactive astrogliosis',
which facilitates scar formation, thereby helping to contain inflammation
and control tissue damage. Astrocytes can also ensure the survival of
nerve cells located immediately adjacent to a site of tissue injury,
thereby preserving the function of neuronal networks. The researchers were
able to elucidate a new mechanism which explains what processes happen
inside the astrocytes and how these are coordinated. To enable scar
formation, drebrin controls the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton,
an internal scaffold responsible for maintaining astrocyte mechanical
stability. By doing so, drebrin also induces the formation of long
cylindrical membrane structures known as tubular endosomes, which are used
in the uptake, sorting and redistribution of surface receptors and are
needed for the defensive measures of astrocytes.
Disability
Rating Scale -
Pain Scale
Constraint-induced Movement Therapy is a form of
rehabilitation therapy that improves upper extremity function in stroke
and other central nervous system damage victims by increasing the use of
their affected upper limb.
Scientists shrink stroke damage in mice by calming immune cells outside
brain.
About 14% of cerebral palsy cases may be tied to brain wiring genes.
Study points to genes that control the establishment of neural circuits
during early development. Researchers confirm that about 14% of all cases
of cerebral palsy, a disabling brain disorder for which there are no
cures, may be linked to a patient's genes and suggest that many of those
genes control how brain circuits become wired during early development.
The results led to recommended changes in the treatment of at least three
patients, highlighting the importance of understanding the role genes play
in the disorder.
Immune cells invade aging brains, disrupt new nerve cell formation or
impair nerve cell generation. The healthy brain is by no means devoid
of immune cells. In fact, it boasts its own unique version of them, called
microglia. But a much greater variety of immune cells abounding in the
blood, spleen, gut and elsewhere in the body are ordinarily denied entry
to the brain, as the blood vessels pervading the brain have tightly sealed
walls. The resulting so-called
blood-brain barrier
renders a healthy brain safe from the intrusion of potentially harmful
immune cells on an inflammatory tear as the result of a systemic illness
or injury.
Killer T Cells.
Agmatine has been shown to exert modulatory action
at multiple molecular targets, notably: neurotransmitter systems, ion
channels, nitric oxide (NO) synthesis and polyamine metabolism and this
provides bases for further research into potential applications.
When certain areas of the brain are injured
Agnosia
is the inability to
interpret sensations or the inability to process
sensory information, which often leads to a loss of ability to recognize
objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells while the specific sense is
not defective nor is there any significant
memory loss. It is usually
associated with
brain injury or neurological illness, particularly after
damage to the occipitotemporal border, which is part of the ventral
stream. Agnosia only affects a single modality, such as vision or hearing.
More recently, a
top-down interruption is considered to cause the
disturbance of handling
perceptual information.
Anosognosia is a condition where you can't recognize other health
conditions or problems that you have. Experts commonly describe it as “
denial
of deficit” or “
lack of insight.” It
falls under the family of agnosias, all of which happen when your brain
can't recognize or process what your senses tell it. Anosognosia is a
condition in which a person with a disability is
cognitively unaware of
having it due to an underlying physical condition. Anosognosia results
from
physiological damage to brain structures, typically to the parietal
lobe or a diffuse lesion on the fronto-temporal-parietal area in the right
hemisphere.
Denial -
Ignorance -
Divided Brain
Visual Neglect or visual hemi-inattention is a neuropsychological
disorder of attention in which patients exhibit a lack of response to
stimuli in one half of their visual field that cannot be explained by
primary damage to the visual geniculostriate pathways. Hemispatial neglect
is a neuropsychological condition in which, after damage to one hemisphere
of the brain (e.g. after a stroke), a deficit in attention and awareness
towards the side of space opposite brain damage (contralesional space) is
observed. It is defined by the inability of a person to process and
perceive stimuli towards the contralesional side of the body or
environment. Hemispatial neglect is very commonly contralateral to the
damaged hemisphere, but instances of ipsilesional neglect (on the same
side as the lesion) have been reported.
Left-Brain Interpreter refers to the construction of explanations by
the left brain hemisphere in order to make sense of the world by
reconciling new information with what was known before. The left-brain
interpreter
attempts to rationalize, reason and generalize new information
it receives in order to relate the past to the present.
Consciousness is Divided,
with each side of the brain being conscious of different elements of
reality.
Left Hemisphere Brain Damage can impact various
cognitive
functions, including memory, attention, problem-solving, and logical
reasoning.
Left hemisphere brain damage can lead
to: Difficulty expressing and
understanding language at the word,
sentence, or conversational level. Trouble reading and writing. Changes in
speech. Deficits in planning, organization, and memory as those skills
relate to language. Damage to the left hemisphere hinders empathic
accuracy from the auditory channel. Orbitofrontal cortex is another area
of the brain that helps us react to another person's feelings. If any of
these brain regions become damaged, a
lack of empathy can occur. Other
cognitive and behavioral problems that can accompany a
lack of empathy
after a brain injury includes childish behavior.
Orbitofrontal Cortex is an area of the brain that
helps us react to another person's feelings. If any of these brain regions
become damaged, a
lack of empathy
can occur. Other cognitive and behavioral problems that can accompany a
lack of empathy after a
brain injury, including
childish behavior.
Split Brain Surgery is when
one side of the
brain can't effectively communicate with the other side of the brain,
which causes errors in information processing.
Right Hemisphere Brain Damage. The
right
hemisphere of the brain coordinates tasks for functional
communication, which include problem solving, memory, and reasoning. The
right hemisphere damage can affect social cognition and emotional
processing, more specifically empathy and empathic responses, which are
crucial for individual success in social interaction.
Aphasia is an
inability to comprehend
language and formulate
language because of
damage to specific brain regions.
Split Brain Surgery.
Apraxia is a motor disorder caused by
damage to the
brain, specifically the
posterior parietal cortex, in which the
individual has difficulty with the motor planning to perform tasks or
movements when asked, provided that the request or command is understood
and he/she is willing to perform the task. A person with apraxia has
impaired volitional control of speech making it difficult to move his or
her lips or tongue to the right place, as the messages from the brain to
the mouth are disrupted. The nature of the
brain damage determines the
severity and the absence of sensory loss or paralysis helps explain the
level of difficulty.
Inability to Empathize: Brain lesions that disrupt sharing and
understanding another’s emotions.
The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations:
Implications for intervention across different clinical conditions.
The Most Bizarre Neurological Conditions You Never Heard Of (youtube)
- Join renowned neuroscientist
Dr. Vilayanur Ramachandran as he explores four extraordinary
neurological conditions that challenge everything we know about the mind.
Meet Graham, who is blind yet can perceive movement, defying conventional
scientific understanding. Discover the perplexing phenomenon of phantom
limbs, where amputees continue to feel sensations in their missing limbs.
Learn about patients like Mrs. Sinclair, who deny their paralysis and
believe their limbs belong to others, a condition known as anosognosia.
Understand how damage to the brain's temporal lobes can lead to profound
emotional and cognitive changes, as seen in temporal lobe epilepsy.
Brain-Computer Interface
-
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor -
Brain Food
Cerebellar Hypoplasia is a heterogeneous group
of disorder of cerebellar maldevelopment presenting as early onset non
progressive ataxia, hypotonia, and motor learning disability. Various
causes has been incriminated like hereditary, metabolic, toxic and viral
agents.
Woman with no Cerebellum.
Communication App -
Autism -
Alzheimer's
Diffuse Axonal Injury is a brain injury in which
damage in the form of extensive lesions in white matter tracts occurs over
a widespread area. DAI is one of the most common and devastating types of
traumatic brain injury, and is a major cause of unconsciousness and
persistent vegetative state after severe head trauma. It occurs in about
half of all cases of severe head trauma and may be the primary damage that
occurs in concussion. The outcome is frequently coma, with over 90% of
patients with severe DAI never regaining consciousness. Those who do wake
up often remain significantly impaired.
Locked-in Syndrome is a condition in which a patient
is
aware but cannot move or
communicate
verbally due to complete
paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles in
the body except for the eyes. Total locked-in syndrome is a version of
locked-in syndrome wherein the eyes are paralyzed as well. People with
locked-in syndrome are
conscious
and can think and reason, but are unable to speak or move. Vertical eye
movements and blinking can be used to communicate.
Brigham and Women's -
Rhinochill -
Music Therapy
Hemispatial Neglect is a neuropsychological
condition in which, after damage to one
hemisphere of
the brain is sustained, a deficit in attention to and awareness of one
side of space is observed. It is defined by the inability of a person to
process and perceive stimuli on one side of the body or environment, where
that inability is not due to a lack of sensation. Hemispatial neglect is
very commonly contralateral to the damaged hemisphere, but instances of
ipsilesional neglect (on the same side as the lesion) have been reported.
Prefrontal Leukotomy or lobotomy, involves severing connections in the
brain's prefrontal cortex. The surgery causes most of the connections to
and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of
the brain, to be severed.
Chemical Lobotomies.
Psychosurgery is the
neurosurgical treatment of mental disorders by destroying or removing
a small piece of brain.
Neuro-Divergent refers to those whose
neurocognitive functioning diverges from dominant societal norms in
multiple ways. Neurodivergent describes people whose brain differences
affect how their brain works. That means they have different strengths and
challenges from people whose brains don't have those differences. The
possible differences include medical disorders, learning disabilities and
other conditions.
Neurodiversity Paradigm is a framework for understanding human brain
function that recognizes the diversity within sensory processing, motor
abilities, social comfort, cognition, and focus as neurobiological
differences. The neurodiversity paradigm argues that diversity in human
cognition is normal and that some conditions generally classified as
disorders, such as autism, are differences and disabilities that are not
necessarily pathological.
Split-Brain is a lay term to describe the result
when the
corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is
severed to some degree. It is an association of symptoms produced by
disruption of or interference with the connection between the hemispheres
of the brain.
Split Brain Surgery -
Neurodegenerative -
Brain Shrinkage
Ataxia is a neurological sign consisting of
lack of
voluntary coordination of muscle movements that includes gait abnormality.
Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of
the parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the
cerebellum.
Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis
Human
Senses
Autoimmune Disease is a condition arising from an
abnormal immune response to a
normal body part. There are at least 80 types of autoimmune diseases.
Nearly any body part can be involved. Common symptoms include low grade
fever and feeling tired. Often symptoms come and go.
Ramona Pierson (video)
Midbrain is a portion of the central nervous system
associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal
(alertness), and temperature regulation.
Transplanted embryonic neurons integrate into adult neocortical circuits
Implanting new neurons to integrate with existing
neocortical circuits.
Grafting
Acquired Savant Syndrome is
when a brain injury can sometimes activate incredible skills that a person never experienced before.
Anoxic Brain Injuries are caused by
a complete
lack of oxygen to the brain,
which results in the death of brain cells after approximately four minutes
of
oxygen deprivation.
Hypoxicischemic Injury or stagnant anoxia,
may occur when
oxygen-carrying blood cannot reach
the brain, resulting in oxygen deprivation caused by
strokes, but can also be caused by other pulmonary
conditions, such as cardiac arrest or cardiac arrhythmia.
Anemic Anoxia occurs when the
blood cannot properly carry enough oxygen
or if there is not enough blood in the body itself to support the oxygen
needs of the brain (i.e.,
lack of
oxygen to the brain).
Toxic Anoxia
occurs when chemicals or poisons
hinder the
ability of the brain to receive oxygen from blood cells.
Anoxic Anoxia is caused by the
lack of oxygen in the air, resulting in
suffocation.
The effects of an anoxic brain injury
may include: headache, difficulty coordinating balance, vision
problems, seizures, changes in sensory perception, trouble speaking and
swallowing, changes in sleep pattern, lack of bowel and bladder control,
changes in sexual function, motor impairment, personality changes,
difficulty forming sentences, confusion, trouble communicating, difficulty
with reason, focus and logic, memory impairments, depression, poor
concentration, mood swings, limited attention span, disorientation,
forgetfulness, acting inappropriately.
O2.
Hypoxic Brain Injuries are brain injuries
that form due to a
restriction on the oxygen being supplied to the brain. The restricted
flow of oxygen causes the
gradual death and impairment of brain cells.
Coma - Unconscious
Coma is a state of
unconsciousness in which a person
cannot be awakened; fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light,
or sound; lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle; and does not initiate voluntary
actions.
Coma Scale (wiki)
UCLA scientists use Ultrasound to jump-start a Man’s Brain after Coma.
Restoring Consciousness with Vagus Nerve Stimulation. After 15 years
in a vegetative state, nerve stimulation restores consciousness.
Persistent Vegetative State is a disorder of
consciousness in which patients with severe brain damage are in a state of
partial arousal rather than true awareness. After four weeks in a
vegetative state (VS), the patient is classified as in a persistent
vegetative state.
Paralysis.
Ways to Communicate
Brain Death is the complete and irreversible loss of
brain function (including involuntary activity necessary to sustain life).
Detection of Brain Activation in Unresponsive Patients with Acute Brain
Injury. Machine learning was applied to EEG recordings to detect brain
activation in response to commands that patients move their hands. The
functional outcome at 12 months was determined with the Glasgow Outcome
Scale–Extended (GOS-E; levels range from 1 to 8, with higher levels
indicating better outcomes).
International study detects consciousness in unresponsive patients.
New research found that brain scans can detect consciousness in some
patients with brain injury who are unresponsive. In the study, 241
participants with severe brain injury who do not respond when given a
simple instruction were assessed with functional MRI (fMRI),
electroencephalography (EEG), or both tests, while
hearing instructions, such as 'imagine opening and closing your hand.'
Their brain responses showed that 25 percent of participants repeatedly
followed this instruction covertly over minutes.
Source of hidden consciousness in 'comatose' brain injury patients found.
Researchers have identified brain circuits that, when injured, make
conscious patients with acute brain injury appear unresponsive, a
phenomenon known as
hidden consciousness. Columbia researchers have identified brain
injuries that may underlie hidden consciousness, a puzzling phenomenon in
which brain-injured patients are unable to respond to simple commands,
making them appear unconscious despite having some level of awareness.
Using a technique we developed called bi-clustering analysis, we were able
to identify patterns of brain injury that are shared among patients with
CMD and contrast to those without CMD or cognitive motor dissociation.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scanner can detect brain
activity associated with thoughts, feelings and intentions. More active
areas of the brain receive more oxygenated blood, and the fMRI scanner can
detect this and pinpoint where the activity is occurring. This allows us
to see when a person is conscious and their brain is working normally,
even when outward appearances suggest they are in a
zombie-like state,
unaware of the world around them.
Heartbeat can help detect signs of consciousness in patients after a coma.
A novel diagnostic method for patients with disorders of consciousness. A
new study shows that heart brain interactions, measured using
electroencephalography (EEG), provide a novel diagnostic method for
patients with disorders of consciousness.
Glasgow Outcome Scale is a scale of patients with
brain injuries, such
as cerebral traumas that groups victims by the objective degree of
recovery.
1. Death - Severe injury or death without recovery of
consciousness.
2. Persistent vegetative state - Severe damage with
prolonged state of unresponsiveness and a lack of higher mental functions.
3. Severe disability - Severe injury with permanent need for help with
daily living.
4. Moderate disability - No need for assistance in
everyday life, employment is possible but may require special equipment.
5. Low disability - Light damage with minor neurological and psychological
deficits.
Paralysis is
loss of muscle function for one or more
muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling
or
sensory loss
in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor.
Regenerating Nerve Fibers across complete Spinal Cord Injury.
Scientists have designed a three-stepped recipe for regenerating
electro-physiologically active nerve fibers across complete
spinal cord lesions in rodents.
Rehabilitation is still required to make these new
nerve fibers functional for walking.
Encephalitis is an acute
inflammation of the brain. Acute
onset of fever, headache, confusion, and sometimes seizures.
Younger children or infants may present irritability, poor
appetite and fever. Neurological examinations usually reveal a
drowsy or confused patient. Stiff neck, due to the irritation of
the meninges covering the brain, indicates that the patient has
either
meningitis or meningoencephalitis.
Treatment of Prion Disease with Heterologous Prion Proteins. Prion
diseases or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are incurable
brain diseases caused by modifications of the
prion
protein. Prions can be transmitted through contaminated food, surgical
instruments and blood. Transmission of prions has caused the kuru epidemic
in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle, which in turn
has caused variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans. Furthermore,
injection of prion-contaminated hormones has caused hundreds of TSE cases.
In order to develop drugs to prevent the spread of
prions
into the brain after exposure via food or medical procedures, it is
necessary to gain an understanding of how prions propagate from the site
of entry to the brain.
Blood Brain Barrier.
Hydrocephalus or
water on the brain, is
a condition in which there is an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
within the brain. This typically causes increased pressure inside the
skull. Older people may have headaches, double vision, poor balance,
urinary incontinence, personality changes, or mental impairment. In babies
there may be a rapid increase in head size. Other symptoms may include
vomiting, sleepiness, seizures, and downward pointing of the eyes
Hydrocephalus can occur due to birth defects or be acquired later in life.
Associated birth defects include neural tube defects and those that result
in aqueductal stenosis. Other causes include meningitis, brain tumors,
traumatic brain injury, intraventricular hemorrhage, and subarachnoid
hemorrhage. There are four types of hydrocephalus: communicating,
non-communicating, ex-vacuo, and normal pressure. Diagnosis is typically
made by examination and medical imaging. Hydrocephalus is typically
treated by the surgical placement of a shunt system. A procedure called a
third ventriculostomy may be an option in a few people. Complications from
shunts may include overdrainage, underdrainage, mechanical failure,
infection, or obstruction. This may require replacement. Outcomes are
variable; however, many live normal lives. Without treatment, death may
occur. About one to two per 1,000 newborns have hydrocephalus. Rates in
the developing world may be more. Normal pressure hydrocephalus is
estimated to affect about 5 per 100,000 people with rates increasing with
age. Description of hydrocephalus by Hippocrates date back more than 2000
years.
Brain-Eating Amoebae parasites halted by silver nanoparticles.
Researchers have developed silver nanoparticles coated with anti-seizure
drugs that can kill brain-eating amoebae while sparing human cells.
Naegleria Fowleri is a species of the genus Naegleria, belonging to
the phylum Percolozoa. It is a free-living, bacteria-eating amoeba that
can be pathogenic, causing a fulminant (sudden and severe) brain infection
called
naegleriasis, also known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM).
This microorganism is typically found in bodies of warm freshwater, such
as ponds, lakes, rivers, and hot springs. It is also found in the soil
near warm-water discharges of industrial plants, and in unchlorinated or
minimally-chlorinated swimming pools. It can be seen in either an amoeboid
or temporary flagellate stage.
Awareness -
Brain Disorders -
Disorders
Special Needs -
Dyslexia
Documentaries
-
Vaccines
-
Brain Stimulation
Brain noise contains unique signature of dream sleep. First EEG
measure of
REM sleep allows scientists to
distinguish dreaming from wakefulness. Dream or REM sleep is distinguished
by rapid eye movement and absence of muscle tone, but electroencephalogram
(EEG) recordings are indistinguishable from those of an awake brain.
Neuroscientists have now found an EEG signature of REM sleep, allowing
scientists for the first time to distinguish dreaming from wakefulness
through brain activity alone. This could help in determining the prognosis
for coma patients, and allow study of the impact of anesthesia on
dreaming.
Our Brains are wrinkled like Walnuts by the time we are born. Babies
born without these wrinkles -- called
smooth brain syndrome -- suffer from severe developmental deficiencies
and their life expectancy is markedly reduced. Now researchers have
developed a method for growing tiny 'brains on chips' from human cells
that enabled them to track the physical and biological mechanisms
underlying the wrinkling process.
Plasticity - Brain Adaptation
Neuro Plasticity is the
brains
ability to remain
changeable
or plastic even into
adulthood.
Learning
-
Training -
Experiences -
Knowledge Integration -
Creating -
Nero
Genesis -
Synesthesia -
Stubbornness
-
Will Power -
Crystalized Intelligence
Synaptic Plasticity
is the ability of
synapses to
strengthen or weaken over time, in
response to increases or decreases in their activity. Since memories are
postulated to be
represented by vastly interconnected
networks of synapses
in the brain, synaptic plasticity is one of the important
neurochemical
foundations of
learning and
memory. Plastic change
often results from the alteration of the number of neurotransmitter
receptors located on a synapse. There are several underlying mechanisms
that cooperate to achieve synaptic plasticity, including changes in the
quantity of neurotransmitters released into a synapse and changes in how
effectively cells respond to those neurotransmitters. Synaptic plasticity
in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses has been found to be dependent
upon postsynaptic calcium release.
Adult Neurogenesis is the process in which neurons are generated from
neural stem cells in the adult. This process differs from
prenatal neurogenesis.
Sensory Adaptation is
the process in which changes in the sensitivity of
sensory receptors occur
in relation to the
stimulus.
All senses are believed to experience sensory
adaptation. However, some
experimental psychologists say that the sense of pain does not experience
this phenomenon.
How the Brain Repurposes Unused Regions.
Neural
Adaptation is a change over time in the responsiveness of the
sensory system to a
constant
stimulus. It is
usually experienced as a change in the stimulus. For example, if a hand is
rested on a table, the table's surface is immediately felt on the skin.
After a little while though this is no longer felt. The sensory neurons
that initially respond are no longer stimulated to respond; this is an
example of neural
adaptation.
All sensory and neural systems have a form of adaptation to constantly
detect changes in the environment. Neural receptor cells that process and
receive stimulation go through constant changes for mammals and other
living organisms to sense vital changes in their environment. Some key
players in several neural systems include
Ca2+ions (see Calcium in
biology) that send negative feedback in second
messenger pathways that
allow the neural receptor cells to close or open channels in response to
the changes of ion flow. There are also mechanoreception systems that use
calcium inflow to physically affect certain proteins and move them to
close or open channels. Functionally, it is highly possible that
adaptation may enhance the limited response range of neurons to encode
sensory signals with much larger dynamic ranges by shifting the range of
stimulus amplitudes. Also, in neural adaptation there is a sense of
returning to baseline from a stimulated response. Recent work suggests
that these baseline states are actually determined by long-term adaptation
to the environment. Varying rates or speed of adaptation is an important
indicator for tracking different rates of change in the environment or the
organism itself. Current research shows that although adaptation occurs at
multiple stages of each sensory pathway, it is often stronger and more
stimulus specific at “cortical” level rather than “subcortical stages.” In
short, neural adaptation is thought to happen at a more central level at
the cortex.
Phantom Limbs.
Nervous System Development (wiki)
Neurotrophin are a family of proteins that induce
the survival, development, and function of neurons.
Researchers discover a mechanism that impairs synaptic plasticity in the
brains of schizophrenia patients. The findings highlight three
plasticity-related
proteins that may significantly
contribute to the
schizophrenia-associated
plasticity deficits.
Synaptic plasticity -- a
cellular mechanism whereby the strength of synaptic connections between
neurons strengthens or weakens over time -- is crucial for learning and
memory. Disruptions in this process are believed to contribute to the
development of schizophrenia.
Genome-wide association studies are conducted to identify statistical
associations between different regions of the genome and a particular
phenotype. These studies are particularly useful for investigating
polygenic conditions, such as schizophrenia, which result from the
interplay of hundreds or thousands of genetic variants. Gene expression is
the process by which the information encoded in a gene is converted into a
functional gene product, such as a protein or an RNA molecule. Gene
expression involves two sequential steps: transcription, where the genetic
information in DNA is transcribed into RNA, and translation, where that
RNA molecule is used to synthesise a protein. Gene expression acts as
on/off switch that controls when, where and how many proteins and RNA
molecules are produced. Gene expression is carefully regulated and
misregulation can lead to various diseases.
Neurogenesis is the process by which
neurons are
generated from
neural stem cells and
progenitor cells. Through precise
genetic mechanisms of cell fate determination, many different varieties of
excitatory and inhibitory neurons are generated from different kinds of
neural stem cells. The Brain can generate about 700 new neurons each day.
Neural Development refers to the processes that generate, shape, and
reshape the nervous system of animals, from the earliest stages of
embryogenesis to adulthood.
Child
Development.
Our brains do change from early to mid-adulthood.
Oxytocin drives development of neural connections in adult-born neurons.
We discovered that
oxytocin, a
peptide, or short protein, produced in the brain, drives events that
contribute to neural circuit plasticity. The researchers discovered that
the levels of
oxytocin increase
in the olfactory bulb, peaking at the time the new neurons incorporate
themselves into neural networks.
Thalamus regulates adaptability of the adult brain. It is generally
believed that the
adaptability of the adult brain mainly takes place in the
cortex. However, a new study shows that the
thalamus, a relay station for incoming motor
and sensory information, plays an unexpectedly important role in this
process.
Brain is 'rewired' during pregnancy to prepare for motherhood.
Researchers have shown that pregnancy hormones ‘rewire’ the brain to
prepare mice for motherhood. The findings show that both estrogen and
progesterone act on a small population of neurons in the brain to switch
on parental behavior even before offspring arrive. These adaptations
resulted in stronger and more selective responses to pups.
How the brain is flexible enough for a complex world without being
thrown into chaos. Many neurons exhibit 'mixed selectivity,' meaning they
can integrate multiple inputs and participate in multiple computations.
Mechanisms such as oscillations and neuromodulators recruit their
participation and tune them to focus on the relevant information. Every
day our brains strive to optimize a trade-off: With lots of things
happening around us even as we also harbor many internal drives and
memories, somehow our thoughts must be flexible yet focused enough to
guide everything we have to do.
Researchers give adult zebra finches back their ability to learn new songs.
As we age, our ability to learn new skills, like mastering a foreign
language or picking up a musical instrument, seems to fade. The culprit? A
decline in brain plasticity - the brain's capacity to rewire itself and
adapt to new challenges. But what if we could rewind the clock on this
age-related decline? A new study offers a tantalizing glimpse into this
possibility. It seems you can teach an old dog new tricks.
The
brain is not hard wired in every area. There are areas of the brain
that are
changeable or can be modified, which is a blessing and a curse.
Because if you are not aware of how you are
creating connections in your
brain, then you might be creating bad behaviors or
creating false
realities. These changes can happen gradual over time, which means that
changing and correcting bad
connections will also take some time to fix.
But once you set up these connections correctly, then your thinking will
become
second nature. The
brain can make new connections
even
after a
stroke, so even a damaged brain can be
repaired or repurposed.
Stimulus -
Nero-Modulation -
Hormones -
Reward -
Addictions -
Feedback Loop -
Hypnosis -
Brain Washing -
Behavior -
Programming -
Developing -
Adult Learning -
Speed Learning -
Games -
Immersion -
Coaching -
Brain Injury -
Chemicals -
Vibrations
-
Associations -
Reconsolidation
Therapy -
Primal Brain
-
Instincts
Malleability
of Intelligence describes the processes by
which
human intelligence may be
augmented through
changes in
neuroplasticity. These changes may come as a result of genetics,
learning, pharmacological factors, psychological factors, behavior, or environmental
conditions.
Growth Mindset states that
intellectual abilities are not fixed,
they are
developed.
Silent synapses are abundant in the adult brain. These immature
connections may explain how the adult brain is able to
form new memories and
absorb new information.
Neuroscientists discovered that the adult brain contains millions of '
silent
synapses' -- immature connections between
neurons
that remain inactive until they're recruited to help form new memories.
The researchers found that
glutamate would not
generate any electrical signal in the filopodium receiving the input,
unless the NMDA receptors were experimentally unblocked. This offers
strong support for the theory the
filopodia represent silent synapses within the brain, the researchers
say. The researchers also showed that they could "unsilence" these
synapses by combining glutamate release with an electrical current coming
from the body of the neuron. This combined stimulation leads to
accumulation of AMPA receptors in the silent synapse, allowing it to form
a strong connection with the nearby axon that is releasing glutamate.
Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity is a biological process that adjusts
the strength of connections between neurons in the brain. The process
adjusts the connection strengths based on the relative timing of a
particular neuron's output and input action potentials (or spikes). The
STDP process partially explains the activity-dependent development of
nervous systems, especially with regard to long-term potentiation and
long-term depression.
Transistors
(IC's).
Astrocytes eat connections to maintain plasticity in adult brains.
Developing brains constantly sprout new neuronal connections called
synapses as they learn and remember. Important connections -- the ones
that are repeatedly introduced, such as how to avoid danger -- are
nurtured and reinforced, while connections deemed unnecessary are pruned
away. Adult brains undergo similar pruning, but it was unclear how or why
synapses in the adult brain get eliminated. Now, a team of researchers has
found the mechanism underlying plasticity and, potentially, neurological
disorders in adult brains. Gray matter in the brain contains
microglia and
astrocytes, two
complementary cells that, among other things, support neurons and
synapses. Microglial are a frontline immunity defense, responsible for
eating pathogens and dead cells, and astrocytes are star-shaped cells that
help structure the brain and maintain homeostasis by helping to control
signaling between
neurons. It is astrocytes and not
microglia that constantly eliminate excessive and unnecessary adult
excitatory synaptic connections in response to neuronal activity. In the
adult hippocampal CA1 region, astrocytes are the major player in
eliminating synapses, and this astrocytic function is essential for
controlling synapse number and plasticity.
Star cells in the brain render memory flexible. Star cells in the
brain render memory flexible. Hippocampal astrocytes co-release D-serine
and glutamate for the regulation of synaptic plasticity and cognitive
flexibility.
Astrocytes, which are
star-shaped cells in the brain, regulate
cognitive flexibility. Specifically, they found that the astrocytes'
ability to simultaneously regulate and integrate synaptic plasticity of
nearby synapses is important for facilitating cognitive flexibility.
Doctors removed one-sixth of a child’s brain
or more than 15 percent. Entire remapping of the function of one
hemisphere onto the other. The ability of the brain to reorganize, create
new connections, and even heal itself after
injury. Neuroplasticity allows
the brain to strengthen or even recreate connections between brain
cells—the pathways that help us learn a foreign language, for instance, or
how to ride a bike.
Surgeons removed the
left side of her brain. In most people, speech and language live in
the brain's
left hemisphere. But Mora Leeb is not
most people. When she was 9 months old, surgeons removed the left side of
her brain. Yet at 15, Mora plays soccer, tells jokes, gets her nails done,
and, in many ways, lives the life of a typical teenager. Mora's
right hemisphere has taken on jobs usually done
on the left side. It's an extreme version of brain plasticity, the process
that allows a brain to modify its connections to adapt to new
circumstances. Human brains are also lateralized, which allows each
hemisphere to specialize in processing certain types of information, or
specific behaviors. Mora had lost the left-brain areas that usually play a
critical role in producing and understanding speech. That meant her right
brain would have to take on these jobs if she was ever going to carry on a
conversation or read a book. your brain doesn't start out having word
recognition completely on the left and face recognition completely on the
right. Early on, these two critical functions appear to compete for space.
To give each enough room, the brain usually pushes words to the left and
faces to the right. When adults experience an injury to one side of the
brain, it often results in permanent impairment. A stroke on the right
side tends to impair facial recognition, while a stroke on the left side
tends to affect a person's speech and language.
Brain injuries can
sometimes give people new abilities. Acquired savant syndrome
occurs when the brain responds to
trauma. The syndrome refers to the new
skills or abilities that emerge in a previously “normal” person.
Neurofeedback is a type of biofeedback that
measures brain waves to
produce a
signal that can be used
as
feedback to
teach self-regulation
of brain function. Neurofeedback is commonly provided using
video or sound, with
positive feedback for desired brain activity and negative feedback for
brain activity that is undesirable. Related technologies include
hemoencephalography biofeedback (HEG) and functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) biofeedback. NFB is a type of biofeedback that uses
real-time displays of brain activity—most commonly
electroencephalography (EEG), to teach self-regulation of brain
function. Typically, sensors are placed on the scalp to measure activity,
with measurements displayed using video displays or sound.
Stimulation.
Hebbian Theory is a neuroscientific theory claiming that an increase
in synaptic efficacy arises from a presynaptic cell's repeated and
persistent stimulation of a postsynaptic cell. It is an attempt to explain
synaptic plasticity, the adaptation of brain neurons during the learning
process."
Cells that fire together wire together.
Hebbian Learning is when simultaneous
activation of cells leads to pronounced increases in synaptic strength
between those cells. It also provides a biological basis for
errorless learning methods
for education and
memory rehabilitation.
In the study of neural networks in cognitive function, it is often
regarded as the neuronal basis of
unsupervised learning.
Psychedelic Drugs promote Neural Plasticity in Rats and Flies -
Change Perspective
Potential link between Vitamin D deficiency and loss of Brain Plasticity.
Brain Plasticity Restored in adult mice through targeting specific nerve
cell connections. The study focused on a subtype of inhibitory cell
also found in people called
Parvalbumin neurons, which exert significant power over the timing of
the "critical period" for brain maturation. A
molecule called SynCAM 1
stabilizes these long-range synapses, and if SynCAM 1 is removed from
these synapses in adult brains, even for a short time, brain plasticity
can be restored. This finding could support development of more targeted
treatments for human conditions such as
autism spectrum disorder and
stroke.
Perineuronal Net are specialized extracellular matrix structures
responsible for synaptic stabilization in the adult brain. PNNs are found
around certain neuron cell bodies and proximal neurites in the central
nervous system. PNNs play a critical role in the closure of the childhood
critical period, and their digestion can cause restored critical
period-like synaptic plasticity in the adult brain. They are largely
negatively charged and composed of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans,
molecules that play a key role in development and plasticity during
postnatal development and in the adult. PNNs appear to be mainly present
in the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, brainstem, and the spinal cord.
Studies of the rat brain have shown that the cortex contains high numbers
of PNNs in the motor and primary sensory areas and relatively fewer in the
association and limbic cortices. In the cortex, PNNs are associated mostly
with inhibitory interneurons and are thought to be responsible for
maintaining the excitatory/inhibitory balance in the adult brain.
Chondroitin Sulfate is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) composed of
a chain of alternating sugars (N-acetylgalactosamine and glucuronic acid).
It is usually found attached to proteins as part of a proteoglycan. A
chondroitin chain can have over 100 individual sugars, each of which can
be sulfated in variable positions and quantities. Chondroitin sulfate is
an important structural component of cartilage, and provides much of its
resistance to compression. Along with glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate has
become a widely used dietary supplement for treatment of osteoarthritis.
A malformation illustrates the incredible plasticity of the brain. One
in 4,000 people is born without a
corpus callosum, a brain structure consisting of
neural fibers that are used to transfer information
between hemisphere. 25% of them do not have any
symptoms. Neuroscientists discovered that when the neuronal fibers that
act as a bridge between the hemispheres are missing, the brain reorganizes
itself and creates an impressive number of connections inside each
hemisphere, recreating connections using alternative neural pathways.
Long-Term Potentiation is a persistent
strengthening
of synapses based
on recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity
that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two
neurons. The opposite of LTP is
long-term depression, which produces a
long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength.
Potential -
Reprogram.
Long-term Depression is an activity-dependent
reduction in the efficacy of neuronal synapses lasting hours or longer
following a long patterned
stimulus.
Cognitive Decline -
Learning Methods.
Neural Facilitation
which postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) (EPPs or EPSPs)
evoked by an impulse are increased when that impulse closely follows a
prior impulse. PPF is thus a form of short-term synaptic plasticity.
Stimulus.
Neurotrophins
Synaptogenesis
occurs throughout
a healthy person's lifespan.
Brain Improvement Methods -
Cognitive Exercises -
10,000 Hour Rule
Sandrine
Thuret: Grow New Brain Cells (video)
Arc
Protein is a plasticity protein believed to play a critical role in
learning and memory-related molecular processes. Dysfunctions in the
production of Arc protein has been implicated as an important factor in
understanding of various neurological conditions including: Amnesia;
Alzheimer's disease; Autism spectrum disorders; and, Fragile X syndrome.
Temporarily closing a single eye of a young mouse for a few days deprives
the visual cortex of normal input, and the neurons'
electrophysiological response to visual experience changes. By contrast,
young mice without Arc cannot adapt to the new experience in the same way.
Neuroglia
are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide
support and protection for neurons in the central and peripheral nervous
systems.
Sensory Neuron are nerve that transmit sensory
information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.). They are activated by sensory
input, and send projections to other elements of the nervous system,
ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.
Interneuron create neural circuits, enabling
communication between sensory or
motor neurons and the central nervous
system (CNS).
Neuroconstructivism is how the brain progressively
sculpts itself and how it gradually becomes specialized over developmental
time.
Neurorehabilitation is a complex medical process
which aims to aid recovery from a nervous system injury, and to minimize
and/or compensate for any functional alterations resulting from it.
Human Neurons Continue to Migrate after Birth Late migration of
inhibitory neurons could play a role in human cognitive abilities,
neurological disease.
Inhibitory neurons, which use the
neurotransmitter GABA, make up about 20 percent of the neurons in the
cerebral cortex and play a vital role in balancing the brain’s need for
stability with its ability to learn and change.
Scientists discover anatomical changes in the brains of the newly sighted.
Following cataract removal, some of the brain's visual pathways seem to be
more malleable than previously thought. Neuroscientists discovered
anatomical changes that occur in the white matter of visual-processing
areas of the brain, in children who have congenital cataracts surgically
removed.
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential is a kind of synaptic
potential that
makes a postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an
action potential.
The opposite of an inhibitory postsynaptic potential is an excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP), which is a synaptic potential that makes a
postsynaptic neuron more likely to generate an action potential. They can
take place at all chemical synapses, which use the secretion of
neurotransmitters to create cell to cell signaling.
Placebos.
Memory molecule
limits plasticity by calibrating calcium. Researchers have identified a
novel role for the
CA2-enriched protein
RGS14
and provided insights into the mechanism by which it limits plasticity.
Bromodeoxyuridine is a synthetic nucleoside that is an analog of
thymidine. BrdU is commonly used in the detection of proliferating cells
in living tissues. 5-Bromodeoxycytidine is deaminated to form BrdU.
Proliferating is cause to grow or increase
rapidly.
Thymidine
is a pyrimidine deoxynucleoside. Deoxythymidine is the DNA nucleoside T,
which pairs with deoxyadenosine (A) in double-stranded DNA. In cell
biology it is used to synchronize the cells in G1/early S phase.
Dentate Gyrus
Neural plasticity depends on this long noncoding RNA's journey from
nucleus to synapse. A long noncoding RNA is a type of RNA that exceeds
200 nucleotides, and does not get translated into protein. There are
thousands of these long noncoding RNA in our cells, but in most cases,
their function isn't yet known. What is known is that usually, they tend
to stay within the cell nucleus. Some regulate the transcription of genes.
Videos - Pure Science Specials
The Brain that Changes Itself
(youtube)
Season 1 Ep. 85 | 01/04/2015 | 55:05.
Changing Your Mind (youtube)
Season 1 Ep. 84 | 01/03/2015 | 52:26.
Mental Makeover
Episode 1. The Brain that Changes Itself, Norman Doidge
(youtube)
Robots that Adapt
(youtube)
Cause of phantom limb pain in amputees, and potential treatment,
identified reorganisation of the wiring of the brain is the underlying
cause of phantom limb pain.
Induced sensorimotor brain plasticity controls pain in phantom limb
patients.
Intelligent Trial and Error Algorithm
Plasticine is a putty-like modelling material made
from calcium salts, petroleum jelly and aliphatic acids.
Stem Cell are undifferentiated biological cells that
can differentiate into specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis)
to produce more stem cells.
Stem Cell Research.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells are a type of
pluripotent stem cell that can be generated directly from adult cells.
Progenitor Cell is a biological cell that, like a
stem cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific type of cell,
but is already more specific than a stem cell and is pushed to
differentiate into its "target" cell. The most important difference
between
stem cells and progenitor cells is that stem cells can replicate
indefinitely, whereas progenitor cells can divide only a limited number of
times.
Endogeny
are substances and processes that originate from within an organism,
tissue, or cell.
Exogeny
is the fact of an action or object originating externally. It contrasts
with endogeny or endogeneity, the fact of being influenced within a
system.
Endocannabinoid System is a group of endogenous
cannabinoid receptors located in the mammalian brain and throughout the
central and peripheral nervous systems, consisting of neuromodulatory
lipids and their receptors. Known as "the body’s own cannabinoid system",
the ECS is involved in a variety of physiological processes including
appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory, and in mediating the
psychoactive effects of
cannabis.
Cannabinoids.
Postsynaptic Potential are changes in the membrane
potential of the postsynaptic terminal of a chemical
synapse.
Astrocyte
are
star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord.
NMDA Receptor is a glutamate receptor and ion
channel protein found in nerve cells.
Neurometrics
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor
Genetic mutation to improve cognitive flexibility. The ability to
adapt to changing situations. The gene, KCND2, codes for a protein that
regulates potassium channels, which control electrical signals that travel
along neurons. The electrical signals stimulate chemical messengers that
jump from neuron to neuron.
A relationship between stability and plasticity
in the brain is regulated in the matrix with the help of enzymes such as
matrix metalloproteinases or MMPs, which can “digest” the
extracellular matrix and thus “loosen” it. A team from the University of
Göttingen has now been able to show in a new study that blocking the
matrix metalloproteinases MMP2 and MMP9 can have opposing effects
depending on whether the brain is sick or healthy.
Drug Dangers
-
Brain Tumors -
BiologyAs we
continually educate ourselves and learn new
things, rather than forming permanent connections, we are forming new
connections. And the more readily the brain forms and reforms its
connectivity in response to changing needs, the better the brain works.
Brain Research - Who's in There?
Brain Research studies the
structure and
function of
human brains and the
nervous system.
Understanding the biological basis of
learning,
memory,
behavior,
perception, and
consciousness is considered the
“ultimate challenge” of behavioral brain research.
Human Brain Project
aims to put in place a cutting-edge research infrastructure that
will allow scientific and industrial researchers to advance our knowledge
in the fields of neuroscience, computing, and brain-related medicine.
Human Brain
Project (video)
Human Brain
Project
(video)
Allen
Institute for Brain Science
Brain Research -
The Dana Foundation
Your Wonderful Brain summary of the key features and functions of your brain
(PDF)
Medical Imaging Technology - The ways we can see into our Brains.
Neuromorphic Engineering describes the use of
very-large-scale integration (VLSI) systems containing electronic analog
circuits to mimic neuro-biological architectures present in the nervous
system.
Mammalian
Brains is the world's largest collection of well-preserved,
sectioned and stained brains of mammals. Viewers can see and download
photographs of brains of over 100 different species of mammals (including
humans) representing over 20 Mammalian Orders.
Triune Brain consists of the reptilian complex, the
paleomammalian complex (limbic system), and the neomammalian complex (neocortex),
viewed as structures sequentially added to the forebrain in the course of
evolution.
Brainwave Entrainment
is a colloquialism for 'neural entrainment', which denotes how the
aggregate oscillation frequency, resulting from synchronous electrical
activity among ensembles of cortical neurons, can adjust to synchronize
with the periodic vibration of an external stimulus, such as a sustained
acoustic frequency perceived as pitch, a regularly repeating pattern of
intermittent sounds perceived as rhythm, or a regularly intermittent
flashing light.
Multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog or digital
signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium.
Cerebellum Anatomy
can be viewed at three levels. At the level of gross anatomy, the
cerebellum consists of a tightly folded and crumpled layer of cortex, with
white matter underneath, several deep nuclei embedded in the white matter,
and a fluid-filled ventricle in the middle. At the intermediate level, the
cerebellum and its auxiliary structures can be broken down into several
hundred or thousand independently functioning modules or "microzones". At
the microscopic level, each module consists of the same small set of
neuronal elements, laid out with a highly stereotyped geometry.
Acetylcholine is an organic chemical that functions in
the brain and body of many types of animals, including humans, as a
neurotransmitter—a chemical released by nerve cells to send signals to
other cells.
Tryptophan is an α-amino acid that is used in the
biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic
acid group, and a side chain indole, classifying it as a non-polar,
aromatic amino acid. It is essential in humans, meaning the body cannot
synthesize it and thus it must be obtained from the diet. Tryptophan is
also a precursor to the neurotransmitters serotonin and melatonin.
Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically
derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in
the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), blood platelets, and the central
nervous system (CNS) of animals, including humans. It is popularly thought
to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and happiness.
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid is the chief inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. It plays the
principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous
system. In humans, GABA is also directly responsible for the regulation of
muscle tone.
Cortisol is a
steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones. When used as
a medication, it is known as hydrocortisone.
Ion Channel are pore-forming membrane proteins whose
functions include establishing a resting membrane potential, shaping
action potentials and other
electrical signals by gating the flow of ions
across the cell membrane, controlling the flow of ions across secretory
and epithelial cells, and regulating cell volume. Ion channels are present
in the membranes of all cells. Ion channels are one of the two classes of ionophoric proteins, along with ion transporters (including the
sodium-potassium pump, sodium-calcium exchanger, and sodium-glucose
transport proteins).
Endorphins are endogenous opioid neuropeptides and
peptide hormones in humans and other animals. They are produced by the
central nervous system and the pituitary gland.
Benzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs
whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a
diazepine ring. The first such drug, chlordiazepoxide (Librium).
Neurons
Monoamine Oxidase
are a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines. They
are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types
in the body.
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis is
a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three
endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland (a pea-shaped
structure located below the thalamus), and the adrenal (also called
"suprarenal") glands (small, conical organs on top of the kidneys).
Pineal Gland
(third eye)
Ventricular System is a set of four interconnected
cavities (ventricles) in the brain, where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is
produced. Within each ventricle is a region of choroid plexus, a network
of ependymal cells involved in the production of CSF. The ventricular
system is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord (from the
fourth ventricle) allowing for the flow of CSF to circulate. All of the
ventricular system and the central canal of the spinal cord is lined with
ependyma, a specialised form of epithelium.
Related Subjects -
Neuromodulation -
Neurotoxins
-
Neurology -
Electromagnetic Fields -
Action
Potential -
Brain
Computer Comparisons -
Plasticity
-
Neurons -
Early Development -
Hormones
-
Reward System -
Hippocampus
-
Spatial Intelligence
-
Memory -
Alzheimer's -
Central Nervous System
-
Biology -
Environment
-
Heart.
Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
is the
outer layer of
neural tissue of the cerebrum of the
brain in humans
and other mammals. It is separated into two cortices, by the longitudinal
fissure that divides the cerebrum into the
left and right cerebral hemispheres. The two
hemispheres are joined beneath the cortex by the
corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex is the largest site of
neural
integration in the
central nervous system.
The cerebral cortex plays a key role in
memory,
attention,
perception,
awareness,
thought,
language, and
consciousness. The human
cerebral cortex is 2 to 4 millimetres (0.079 to 0.157 in) thick. The outer
layer cerebral cortex is the outer covering of
gray matter
over the hemispheres. This is typically 2- 3 mm thick, covering the gyri
and sulci. In most
mammals, apart from small mammals that have small brains, the cerebral
cortex is folded, providing a greater surface area in the confined volume
of the cranium. Apart from minimising brain and cranial volume,
cortical folding is crucial for the
wiring of the
brain and its functional organization. In mammals with a small brain
there is no folding and the cortex is smooth. A fold or ridge in the
cortex is termed a gyrus (plural gyri) and a groove is termed a sulcus
(plural sulci). These surface convolutions appear during fetal development
and continue to mature after birth through the process of gyrification. In
the human brain the majority of the cerebral cortex is not visible from
the outside, but buried in the sulci, and the insular cortex is completely
hidden. The major sulci and gyri mark the divisions of the cerebrum into
the lobes of the brain. There are
between 14 and 16
billion neurons in the cerebral cortex. These are organised into
cortical columns and minicolumns of neurons that make up the
layers of the cortex.
Most of the cerebral cortex consists of the six-layered
neocortex. Cortical areas have specific functions such as movement in
the motor cortex, and sight in the
visual cortex.
Child Development.
Prefrontal Cortex is the cerebral cortex which covers the front part
of the
frontal lobe. This brain region has been implicated in planning
complex cognitive behavior,
personality
expression,
decision making,
and moderating
social behavior. The
basic activity of this brain region is considered to be
orchestration of
thoughts and actions in accordance with
internal goals. The prefrontal
cortex gives us the tools to intelligently regulate our thoughts, actions
and emotions through extensive connections with other brain regions, and
by
learning valuable knowledge.
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex is an area in the prefrontal cortex of
the brain that
undergoes a
prolonged period of maturation which lasts until adulthood. An
important function of the
DLPFC is the
executive functions, such as
working memory,
cognitive flexibility,
planning,
inhibition,
focus, and
abstract
reasoning.
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex is a part of the prefrontal cortex in
the
mammalian brain. The ventral medial prefrontal is located in the
frontal lobe at the bottom of the cerebral hemispheres and is implicated
in the processing of
risk
and
fear. It also plays a role in
the
inhibition
of
emotional responses, and in
the process of
decision making
and
self control. It is also involved
in the cognitive evaluation of
morality.
Operant and
Classical Conditioning -
PTSD
Structural Variations in Prefrontal Cortex Mediate the Relationship
between Early Childhood Stress and Spatial Working Memory. The PFC
contains the Brodmann areas BA8, BA9, BA10, BA11, BA12, BA13, BA14, BA24,
BA25, BA32, BA44, BA45, BA46, and BA47. The
prefrontal cortex plays a central role in cognitive control functions,
and dopamine in the PFC modulates cognitive control, thereby influencing
attention, impulse inhibition, prospective memory, and cognitive
flexibility. Structural differences in the prefrontal cortex can affect
empathy, cognition and decision making and cause
conduct disorder or behavior
disorders and criminal behavior.
Psychopaths.
Perirhinal Cortex is a cortical region in the medial temporal lobe
that is made up of
Brodmann areas 35 and 36. It receives highly processed sensory
information from all sensory regions, and is generally accepted to be an
important region for
memory. It is bordered
caudally by postrhinal cortex or parahippocampal cortex (homologous
regions in rodents and primates, respectively) and ventrally and medially
by entorhinal cortex.
Brodmann Area 10 is the anterior-most portion of the
prefrontal cortex in the human brain.
Brodmann area 25
region is extremely rich in
serotonin transporters and is considered as a governor for a vast
network involving areas like
hypothalamus and
brain stem, which influences changes in
appetite and
sleep; the amygdala and insula, which affect
the mood and anxiety; the
hippocampus,
which plays an important role in memory formation; and some parts of the
frontal cortex responsible for
self-esteem. This region is particularly implicated in the normal
processing of sadness.
Posterior Cingulate Cortex is the backmost part of the cingulate
cortex, lying behind the anterior cingulate cortex. This is the upper part
of the "limbic lobe". The cingulate cortex is made up of an area around
the midline of the brain. Surrounding areas include the retrosplenial
cortex and the precuneus. Cytoarchitectonically the posterior cingulate
cortex is associated with
Brodmann areas 23 and 31. The posterior cingulate cortex forms a
central node in the
default
mode network of the brain. It has been shown to communicate with
various brain networks simultaneously and is involved in various
functions. Along with the precuneus, the posterior cingulate cortex has
been implicated as a neural substrate for human
awareness in numerous studies
of both the anesthesized and vegetative (
coma)
state. Imaging studies indicate a prominent role for the posterior
cingulate cortex in pain and episodic memory retrieval. Increased size of
posterior ventral cingulate cortex is related to declines in
working memory performance. The posterior
cingulate cortex has been strongly implicated as a key part of several
intrinsic control networks.
Orbitofrontal
Cortex is a prefrontal cortex region in the frontal lobes in the brain
which is involved in the
cognitive processing of decision-making. The OFC is considered
anatomically synonymous with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
Therefore, the region is distinguished due to the distinct neural
connections and the distinct functions it performs. It is defined as the
part of the prefrontal cortex that receives projections from the
magnocellular, medial nucleus of the mediodorsal thalamus, and is thought
to represent emotion and
reward in
decision making. It gets its name from its position immediately above the
orbits in which the eyes are located. Considerable individual variability
has been found in the OFC of both humans and non-human primates.
Brainstem -
Left Brain.
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex is a part of the prefrontal cortex in
the mammalian brain. The ventral medial prefrontal is located in the
frontal lobe at the bottom of the cerebral hemispheres and is implicated
in the processing of
risk
and
fear. It also plays a role in
the inhibition of
emotional
responses, and in the process of decision making and
self control. It is also involved
in the cognitive evaluation of
morality.
Brain
Food
Lobes of the Brain. The four main
lobes of the brain
is the frontal lobe, the
parietal lobe, the
occipital lobe and the
temporal lobe.
The three lobes of the human cerebellum are the
flocculonodular lobe, the
anterior lobe and the
posterior lobe. There are two lobes of the thymus.
Terminologia Anatomica (1998) and Terminologia Neuroanatomica (2017)
divides the cerebrum into 6 lobes. Each lobe of the brain consists of
different sub regions that work together to create full function within
the entirety of the brain.
Lobe in anatomy
is a somewhat rounded subdivision of a bodily organ or part. Lobe in
botany is a part into which a leaf is divided.
Frontal Lobe
is located at the front of the brain, is one of the four major lobes of
the
cerebral cortex in the mammalian brain. The frontal lobe contains most
of the dopamine-sensitive
neurons in the cerebral cortex. The
dopamine
system is associated with
reward,
attention, short-term
memory tasks,
planning, and
motivation.
Dopamine tends to limit and select
sensory
information arriving from the
thalamus to the forebrain.
Hippocampus (memory) -
Amygdala -
Striatum -
Cerebellum -
Cortex
Forebrain or
prosencephalon is the rostral-most (forward-most) portion of the brain. At
the five-vesicle stage, the forebrain separates into the diencephalon
(thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus, and pretectum) and the
telencephalon which develops into the cerebrum. The cerebrum consists of
the cerebral cortex, underlying white matter, and the
basal ganglia.
Subcortical involves the nerve centers
below the
cerebral cortex.
Key Features and Functions of your Brain
(brain research)
Parietal Lobe is one of the four major
lobes of the cerebral cortex in
the brain of mammals. Integrates sensory information among various
modalities, including
spatial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main
sensory receptive area
for the sense of touch (mechanoreception) in the somatosensory cortex
which is just posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus,
and the dorsal stream of the visual system. The major sensory inputs from
the skin (touch, temperature, and pain receptors), relay through the
thalamus to the parietal lobe.
Precuneus the medial area of the superior parietal cortex, which is involved
with
episodic memory, visuospatial processing, reflections upon self, and
aspects of
consciousness.
Temporal Lobe is
one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of
mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both
cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain. The
temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived
meanings for the appropriate retention of
visual memory, language
comprehension, and
emotion
association.
Medial Temporal Lobe
includes the hippocampus, amygdala and parahippocampal regions, and is
crucial for episodic and spatial memory. The theta rhythm is believed to
be crucial in the encoding and retrieval of memories.
Medial prefrontal cortex is a brain region
related to
self-thought, pride,
self reflection, self worth, criticism and moralizing.
Occipital Lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex
in the brain of mammals. The occipital lobe is the
visual processing
center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of
the visual cortex.
Retrosplenial Cortex is a cortical area in the brain comprising
Brodmann areas 29 and 30. It is secondary association
cortex, making
connections with numerous other brain regions. The region's name refers to
its anatomical location immediately behind the splenium of the corpus
callosum in primates, although in rodents it is located more towards the
brain surface and is relatively larger. Its function is currently not well
understood, but its location
close to visual areas
and also to the hippocampal spatial/memory system suggest it may have a
role in mediating between perceptual and memory functions, particularly in
the spatial domain. However, its exact contribution to either space or
memory processing has been hard to pin down.
Fusiform Gyrus also known as the discontinuous occipitotemporal gyrus, is part of the temporal lobe and occipital lobe in
Brodmann area 37. The fusiform gyrus is located between the lingual gyrus
and parahippocampal gyrus.
Entorhinal Cortex is an area of the brain located in the
medial
temporal lobe and functioning as a hub in a widespread
network for
memory
and
navigation. The EC is the main interface between the
hippocampus and neocortex. The
EC-hippocampus system plays an important role in declarative
(autobiographical/episodic/semantic) memories and in particular
spatial
memories including
memory formation,
memory consolidation, and memory
optimization in sleep. The EC is also responsible for the pre-processing
(familiarity) of the input signals in the reflex nictitating membrane
response of classical trace conditioning, the association of impulses from
the eye and the ear occurs in the entorhinal cortex.
Cingulate Cortex is a part of the brain situated in the medial aspect
of the cerebral cortex. It is an integral part of the
limbic system, which
is involved with emotion formation and processing, learning, and memory.
The combination of these three functions makes the cingulate gyrus highly
influential in linking motivational outcomes to behavior (e.g. a certain
action induced a positive emotional response, which results in learning).
This role makes the cingulate cortex highly important in disorders such as
depression and schizophrenia. It also plays a role in executive function
and respiratory control.
White Matter.
Association Cortex
is the cerebral cortex outside the primary areas. It is essential for
mental functions that are more complex than detecting basic dimensions of
sensory stimulation, for which primary sensory areas appear to be
necessary. In humans the
association areas are by far the most developed
part of the cerebral cortex, and the brain in general. These areas are
necessary for perceptual activities, like recognizing objects (toasters,
horses, trees, words, etc), rather than simple contours, edges or sensory
qualities like color or pitch.
Why are the brain's nerve cells organized into modules? Scientists
have revealed that the outer part of our brain or cortex is skilled at
managing all the info it gets
from the outside world thanks to special groups of
nerve
connections called modules, which work together but also
independently. Scientists have found that the outer cortex of the
mammalian brain is able to maintain control over all the external inputs
it receives because of how its nerve networks are organized into
interconnected but independently
functioning 'modules.'
Modular Design
is a design principle that subdivides a system into smaller parts called
modules (such as
modular process skids), which can be independently created, modified,
replaced, or exchanged with other modules or between different systems.
Modular Programming is a software design technique that emphasizes
separating the functionality of a program into independent,
interchangeable modules, such that each contains everything necessary to
execute only one aspect of the desired functionality.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex is the frontal part of the
cingulate cortex that resembles a "collar" surrounding the frontal part of
the corpus callosum. It consists of Brodmann areas 24, 32, and 33. It
appears to play a role in a wide variety of autonomic functions, such as
regulating blood pressure and
heart rate. It is also involved in certain
higher-level functions, such as
reward anticipation,
decision-making,
impulse control, and
emotion.
Learning -
Ego.
Insular Cortex is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within
the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the
parietal and frontal lobes). The insulae are believed to be involved in
consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to
emotion or the regulation of the
body's
Homeostasis, which is the metabolic
equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms
that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting
changes. These functions
include perception,
motor control,
self-awareness,
cognitive functioning,
and
interpersonal experience. In relation to these, it is involved in
psychopathology. The insular cortex is divided into two parts: the larger
anterior insula and the smaller posterior insula in which more than a
dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the
insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning
lid). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal,
temporal, and parietal lobes.
Posterior is
located at or near or behind a part or near the end of a structure.
Anterior is near the head end or toward the
front plane of a body.
Neocortex
is the largest part of the cerebral cortex which covers the two cerebral
hemispheres, with the allocortex making up the rest. The neocortex is made
up of six layers, labelled from the outermost inwards, I to VI. In humans,
the neocortex is involved in higher functions such as
sensory perception,
generation of
motor commands,
spatial reasoning and
language. There are
two types of cortex in the neocortex – the true isocortex and the
proisocortex. The neocortex has
also been shown to play an influential role in sleep,
memory and
learning
processes. Semantic memories appear to be stored in the neocortex,
specifically the anterolateral temporal lobe of the neocortex. It is also
involved in instrumental conditioning; responsible for transmitting
sensory information and information about plans for movement to the basal
ganglia. The firing rate of neurons in the neocortex also has an effect on
slow-wave sleep. When the neurons are at rest and are hyperpolarizing, a
period of inhibition occurs during a slow oscillation, called the down
state. When the neurons of the neocortex are in the excitatory
depolarizing phase and are firing briefly at a high rate, a period of
excitation occurs during a slow oscillation, called the up state.
Primary Somatosensory Cortex is located in the
postcentral gyrus, and is part of the
somatosensory system. At
the primary somatosensory cortex, tactile representation is orderly
arranged (in an inverted fashion) from the toe (at the top of the cerebral
hemisphere) to mouth (at the bottom). However, some body parts may be
controlled by partially overlapping regions of
cortex.
Each cerebral hemisphere of the primary somatosensory cortex only contains
a tactile representation of the opposite (contralateral) side of the body.
The amount of primary somatosensory cortex devoted to a body part is not
proportional to the absolute size of the body surface, but, instead, to
the relative density of cutaneous tactile receptors located on that body
part. The density of cutaneous tactile receptors on a body part is
generally indicative of the degree of sensitivity of tactile stimulation
experienced at said body part. For this reason, the human lips and hands
have a larger representation than other body parts.
Cerebellum is a major feature of the
hindbrain of all vertebrates. In humans, the cerebellum plays an
important role in
motor control.
It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as
attention and
language as well as in regulating
fear and
pleasure responses,
but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The
human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to
coordination, precision, and
accurate timing: it receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord
and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to
fine-tune motor activity. Cerebellar
damage produces disorders in fine
movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning in humans.
Anatomically, the human cerebellum has the appearance of
a separate structure attached to the bottom of the
brain, tucked underneath the cerebral hemispheres. Its cortical
surface is covered with finely spaced parallel grooves, in striking
contrast to the broad irregular convolutions of the cerebral cortex. These
parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellar cortex is actually
a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded
in the style of an accordion. Within this thin layer are several
types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement, the most important
being Purkinje cells and granule cells. This complex neural organization
gives rise to a massive signal-processing capability, but almost all of
the output from the cerebellar cortex passes through a set of small deep
nuclei lying in the white matter interior of the cerebellum. In addition
to its direct role in motor control, the cerebellum is necessary for
several types of motor learning, most notably learning to adjust to
changes in sensorimotor relationships. Several theoretical models have
been developed to explain sensorimotor calibration in terms of synaptic
plasticity within the cerebellum. These models derive from those
formulated by David Marr and James Albus, based on the observation that
each cerebellar Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of
input: one comprises thousands of weak inputs from the parallel fibers of
the granule cells; the other is an extremely strong input from a single
climbing fiber. The basic concept of the Marr–Albus theory is that the
climbing fiber serves as a "teaching signal", which induces a long-lasting
change in the strength of parallel fiber inputs. Observations of long-term
depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided support for theories of
this type, but their validity remains controversial.
Cerebellum checks and corrects thoughts, movement. The cerebellum has
a hand in every aspect of higher brain functions — not just movement, but
attention, thinking, planning and decision-making. Almost
80% of neurons are in the cerebellum. Neurons known
as
granule cells, account for 80 percent of the
neurons in the brain – all packed into the cerebellum – but only about 10
percent of its volume. Cerebellum accounts for just 10 percent of the
organ's total volume, but contains more than 50 percent of its neurons.
Cerebellum, tucked in the back of the brain mostly just keeping our
muscles running smoothly. Its larger neighbor, the cerebrum, gets all the
attention. It’s the seat of intelligence, the home of thinking and
planning, but not
consciousness. The cerebellum – which literally means “
little
brain” – is thought to just sit there helping us balance and
breathe, like some kind of wee heating and ventilation system. Neurons
within the cerebellum respond to and learn to anticipate rewards.
Brain Stem.
Little Brain or Cerebellum not so little after all. When we say
someone has a quick mind, it may be in part thanks to our expanded
cerebellum that distinguishes human brains from those of macaque monkeys,
for example. High-resolution imaging shows the cerebellum is 80 percent of
the area of the cortex, indicating it has grown as human behavior and
cognition evolved.
Little Brain better visualized with the help of new technology. The
cerebellum, or our little brain, is mainly responsible for our motor
skills. Furthermore, the structure is important for behavior and
cognition. The cerebellum is a part of your brain located at the back of
your head, just above and behind where your spinal cord connects to your
brain itself. Although this part only accounts for 10 percent of the
volume of our brain, the cerebellum contains more brain cells than the
rest of our brain, and is therefore an important area that we want to map
out properly. The cerebellum is highly folded in humans compared to other
mammals. This makes it a difficult structure to fully visualize and
therefore study, because of the condensed layers. To really properly image
it, you need high resolution imaging. Using current imaging techniques,
only a small portion of the cerebellar anatomy could be visualized,
leaving the remaining details ignored. The ingenious structure is
therefore still largely undiscovered.
Rhinal Cortex is proposed to be part of the neural circuit
for
explicit memory.
Allocortex is one of the two types of cerebral cortex, the other being
the neocortex. It is characterized by having just three or four cell
layers, in contrast with the six layers of the neocortex, and takes up a
much smaller area than the neocortex. There are three subtypes of
allocortex: the paleocortex, the archicortex, and the periallocortex – a
transitional zone between the neocortex and the allocortex.
Visual Cortex is
a part of the
cerebral cortex that plays an important role in processing
visual information.
Visual System is
the part of the
central nervous system which gives
organisms the ability to
process visual detail, as well as enabling the formation of several
non-image photo response functions. It detects and interprets information
from visible light to build a representation of the surrounding
environment. The visual system carries out a number of complex tasks,
including the reception of light and the formation of monocular
representations; the buildup of a nuclear binocular perception from a pair
of two dimensional projections; the
identification and categorization of visual objects; assessing
distances to and between objects; and guiding body movements in relation
to the objects seen. The psychological process of visual information is
known as visual perception, a lack of which is called
blindness. Non-image forming visual functions, independent of visual
perception, include the pupillary light reflex (PLR) and circadian
photoentrainment.
Frontal Eye Fields are a region located in the frontal cortex, more
specifically in Brodmann area 8 or BA8, of the primate brain. In humans,
it can be more accurately said to lie in a region around the intersection
of the middle frontal gyrus with the precentral gyrus, consisting of a
frontal and parietal portion. The FEF is responsible for saccadic
eye movements for the purpose of visual
field perception and
awareness, as well as for
voluntary eye movement. The FEF communicates with extraocular muscles
indirectly via the paramedian pontine reticular formation. Destruction of
the FEF causes deviation of the eyes to the ipsilateral side.
Researchers discover brain area crucial for recognizing visual events.
Researchers report that a brain region in the
superior temporal sulcus is crucial for processing and making
decisions about visual information.
Lateral Intraparietal Cortex is found in the
intraparietal sulcus of the brain. This area is most likely involved
in eye movement, as electrical stimulation evokes saccades (quick
movements) of the eyes. It is also thought to contribute to
working memory associated with guiding
eye movement, examined using a delayed saccade
task described below: A subject focuses on a fixation point at the center
of a computer screen. A target (for instance a shape) is presented at a
peripheral location on the screen. The target is removed and followed by a
variable-length delay period. The initial focus point in the middle of the
screen is removed. The subject's task is to make a saccade to the location
of the target.
Neurons in area LIP have been shown
to start responding with the initial presentation of the
stimulus. The neurons
keep responding through the delay period until the fixation point is
removed. As the neural response stops, the saccadic eye movement starts
and the animal soon focuses on the exact location of the previously shown
target. There is also evidence for neurons firing for saccadic responses
in the two-alternative forced choice task. The conclusion of this task
experiment is that neurons in area LIP store information (the location of
the target) useful for guiding the saccadic movement; that is, this area
of the cortex shows modality-specific working memory.
Auditory Cortex
is the part of the
temporal lobe that processes
auditory
information in humans and other vertebrates. It is a part of the
auditory system, performing basic and higher functions in
hearing. It is located bilaterally, roughly at
the upper sides of the temporal lobes – in humans on the superior temporal
plane, within the lateral fissure and comprising parts of Heschl's gyrus
and the superior temporal gyrus, including planum polare and planum
temporale (roughly Brodmann areas 41, 42, and partially 22). Unilateral
destruction results in slight hearing loss, whereas bilateral destruction
results in cortical deafness.
Sensory Cortex
can refer informally to the primary somatosensory cortex, or it can be
used as a term for the primary and secondary cortices of the different
senses (two cortices each, on left and right hemisphere): the visual
cortex on the occipital lobes, the auditory cortex on the temporal lobes,
the primary olfactory cortex on the uncus of the piriform region of the
temporal lobes, the gustatory cortex on the insular lobe (also referred to
as the insular cortex), and the primary somatosensory cortex on the
anterior parietal lobes. Just posterior to the primary somatosensory
cortex lies the somatosensory association cortex, which integrates sensory
information from the primary somatosensory cortex (temperature, pressure,
etc.) to construct an understanding of the object being felt. Inferior to
the frontal lobes are found the olfactory bulbs, which receive sensory
input from the olfactory nerves and route those signals throughout the
brain. Not all olfactory information is routed to the olfactory cortex.
Some neural fibers are routed directly to limbic structures, while others
are routed to the supraorbital region of the frontal lobe. Such a direct
limbic connection makes the olfactory sense unique. The brain cortical
regions are related to the auditory, visual, olfactory, and somatosensory
(
touch, proprioception) sensations, which are located lateral to the
lateral fissure and posterior to the central sulcus, that is, more toward
the back of the brain. The cortical region related to gustatory sensation
is located anterior to the central sulcus. Note that the central sulcus
(sometimes referred to as the central fissure) divides the primary motor
cortex (on the precentral gyrus of the posterior frontal lobe) from the
somatosensory cortex (on the postcentral gyrus of the anterior parietal
lobe). The somatosensory cortex is involved in somatic sensation, visual
stimuli, and movement planning.
Basal Ganglia
are a group of subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in the brains of
vertebrates, including humans, which are situated at the
base of the forebrain and top of the midbrain.
There are some differences in the basal ganglia of primates. Basal ganglia
are
strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex,
thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several
other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of
functions, including control of voluntary motor movements, procedural
learning, habit learning, eye movements, cognition, and emotion. The main
components of the basal ganglia – as defined functionally – are the
striatum; both dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) and ventral
striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle), globus pallidus,
ventral pallidum, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. Each of these
components has a complex internal anatomical and neurochemical
organization. The largest component, the striatum (dorsal and ventral),
receives input from many brain areas beyond the basal ganglia, but only
sends output to other components of the basal ganglia. The pallidum
receives input from the striatum, and sends inhibitory output to a number
of motor-related areas. The substantia nigra is the source of the striatal
input of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which plays an important role in
basal ganglia function. The subthalamic nucleus receives input mainly from
the striatum and cerebral cortex, and projects to the globus pallidus.
Popular theories implicate the basal ganglia primarily in action selection
– in
helping to decide which of several
possible behaviors to execute at any given time. In more specific
terms, the basal ganglia's primary function is likely to control and
regulate activities of the motor and premotor cortical areas so that
voluntary movements can be performed smoothly. Experimental studies show
that the basal ganglia exert an inhibitory influence on a number of motor
systems, and that a release of this inhibition permits a motor system to
become active. The "
behavior switching"
that takes place within the basal ganglia is
influenced by signals from
many parts of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, which plays
a key role in executive functions. The basal ganglia are of major
importance for normal brain function and behaviour. Their dysfunction
results in a wide range of neurological conditions including disorders of
behaviour control and movement. Those of behaviour include Tourette
syndrome, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and addiction. Movement disorders
include, most notably Parkinson's disease, which involves degeneration of
the dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra, Huntington's
disease, which primarily involves damage to the striatum, dystonia, and
more rarely hemiballismus. The basal ganglia have a limbic sector whose
components are assigned distinct names: the nucleus accumbens, ventral
pallidum, and ventral tegmental area (VTA). There is considerable evidence
that this limbic part plays a central role in reward learning as well as
cognition and frontal lobe functioning, via the mesolimbic pathway from
the VTA to the nucleus accumbens that uses the neurotransmitter dopamine,
and the mesocortical pathway. A number of highly addictive drugs,
including cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine in cigarettes, are thought to
work by increasing the efficacy of this dopamine signal. There is also
evidence implicating overactivity of the VTA dopaminergic projection in
schizophrenia.
Striatum
also known as the neostriatum or striate nucleus, is one of the nuclei in
the subcortical basal ganglia of the
forebrain. The striatum is a critical
component of the motor and
reward systems. It receives both
glutamatergic and
dopaminergic inputs from different sources, and serves as the primary
input to the rest of the basal ganglia nuclei.
Premotor Cortex
is an area of motor cortex lying within the frontal lobe
of the brain just anterior to the primary motor cortex.
Superior Parietal Lobule
is bounded in front by the upper part of the postcentral sulcus, but is
usually connected with the postcentral gyrus above the end of the sulcus.
The superior parietal lobule contains Brodmann's areas 5 and 7.
Thalamus (hypothalamus)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone also known as corticotropin is a
polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent.
N-Acetylaspartic Acid is a derivative of aspartic acid
with a formula of C6H9NO5 and a molecular weight of 175.139. NAA is the
second-most-concentrated molecule in the brain after the amino acid
glutamate. It is detected in the adult brain in neurons, oligodendrocytes
and myelin and is synthesized in the mitochondria from the amino acid
aspartic acid and acetyl-coenzyme A.
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor
Chemoreceptor is a specialized sensory receptor cell which
transduces (responds to) a chemical substance and generates a biological
signal. This signal may be in the form of an action potential if the
chemoreceptor is a neuron (nerve cell), or in the form of a
neurotransmitter that can activate a nearby nerve fiber if the chemosensor
is a specialized sensory receptor cell, such the taste receptor in a taste
bud or in an internal peripheral chemoreceptor such as the carotid body.
In more general terms, a chemosensor detects chemicals in the internal or
external environment and transmits that information to the nervous system.
Receptor in biochemistry is a protein molecule that receives
chemical signals from outside a cell. When such chemical signals bind to a
receptor, they cause some form of cellular/tissue response, e.g. a change
in the electrical activity of a cell. In this sense, a receptor is a
protein-molecule that recognizes and responds to endogenous chemical
signals, e.g. an acetylcholine receptor recognizes and responds to its
endogenous ligand, acetylcholine. However, sometimes in pharmacology, the
term is also used to include other proteins that are drug targets, such as
enzymes, transporters and ion channels.
Trigeminal Nerve is a nerve responsible for sensation in the
face and motor functions such as biting and chewing. The largest of the
cranial nerves, its name ("trigeminal" = tri-, or three and -geminus, or
twin; thrice-twinned) derives from the fact that each trigeminal nerve
(one on each side of the pons) has three major branches: the ophthalmic
nerve (V1), the maxillary nerve (V2), and the mandibular nerve (V3). The
ophthalmic and maxillary nerves are purely sensory, and the mandibular
nerve has sensory (or "cutaneous") and motor functions.
Transcriptome is the set of all messenger RNA molecules in
one cell or a population of cells. It differs from the exome in that it
includes only those RNA molecules found in a specified cell population,
and usually includes the amount or concentration of each RNA molecule in
addition to the molecular identities.
Alternative Splicing in the Mammalian Nervous System.
Brainstem -
Spinal Cord
Reticular Activating System is a set of connected nuclei in
the brains of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating wakefulness
and sleep-wake transitions. As its name implies, its most influential
component is the reticular formation.
Reticular Formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that
are located throughout the brainstem. The reticular formation is not
anatomically well defined because it includes neurons located in diverse
parts of the brain. The neurons of the reticular formation all play a
crucial role in maintaining behavioral arousal and consciousness. The
functions of the reticular formation are modulatory and premotor. The
modulatory functions are primarily found in the rostral sector of the
reticular formation and the premotor functions are localized in the
neurons in more caudal regions.
Arcuate
Fasciculus is a bundle of
axons that forms part
of the superior longitudinal fasciculus, an association fiber tract. The
arcuate bidirectionally connects caudal temporal
cortex
and inferior parietal cortex to locations in the frontal lobe.
Informatics
Platform for Imaging Research.
The Brain Observatory.
Long-term neural and physiological phenotyping of a single human.
My Connectome Data Sharing
New Technique Captures the Activity of an entire Brain in a
Snapshot.
The Brain
Dictionary - Word Map of the Brain (youtube)
MRI scans show mapping of the
semantic
systems of the brain. How the brain organizes words and
language in the brain. Words are grouped by meaning. So
basically what I'm doing with BK101 is just mimicking my brains
organizing ability.
Interactive map showing which brain areas respond to hearing
different words. The map reveals how
language is spread
throughout the cortex and across both hemispheres, showing
groups of
words clustered together by meaning. The beautiful
interactive model allows us to explore the
complex organization
of the enormous dictionaries in our heads.
TSRI Scientists Reveal Single-Neuron Gene Landscape of the Human
Brain.
Transcriptome is the set of all messenger RNA molecules in
one cell or a population of cells. It differs from the exome in
that it includes only those RNA molecules found in a specified
cell population, and usually includes the amount or
concentration of each
RNA molecule in addition to the molecular identities.
Ganglionic Eminence In neuroanatomy and neuroembryology, a
ganglionic eminence (GE) is a transitory brain structure that
guides cell and axon migration. It is present in the embryonic
and fetal stages of neural development found between the
thalamus and caudate nucleus.
Researchers identified 16 neuronal subtypes in the cerebral
cortex. Human brain houses diverse populations of neurons, new research shows.
Neural Connections
Connectome is a comprehensive
map of
neural
connections in the brain, and may be thought of as its "
wiring diagram".
More broadly, a connectome would include the
mapping of all
neural
connections within an organism's
nervous system.
Corpus callosum
connects the left and right sides
of the brain.
A Multi-Modal Parcellation of Human Cerebral Cortex.
Neuro-Science Blueprint Connectome -
Human Connectome Project
Association Structures -
Junctions -
Links -
Networks -
File Systems
-
Personal Education
Connectomics is the production and study of connectomes, which is the
comprehensive
maps of
connections within an
organism's
nervous system. More generally, it
can be thought of as the study of neuronal
wiring diagrams with a
focus on how
structural
connectivity, individual synapses,
cellular morphology, and cellular ultrastructure contribute to the
make up of a network.
Comparative connectomics
can provide insight into general principles of
neural wiring
that apply across species and can examine to what extent
variations in connectivity between species may form the basis for
differences in brain function. Connections are made by
neurons that
link the
sensory inputs and
motor outputs with centers in
the various lobes of the
cerebral cortex.
The
mind is a
network that you have to
wire yourself. When you
teach yourself,
its you who decides how
connections should be made and how strong those connections need to
be. It's better that you do it yourself than trust strangers in schools.
Learning from BK101 is like wiring the
cerebral cortex,
you're making connections, making
associations and
linking neurons
together to form a complex communication network. This is more than just
learning, it's
reasoning,
understanding and
verification. When
information is not connected right, you can have errors or false signals.
Hub Neurons and Brain Networked File Systems. File systems were built
with NO abstraction. Total logical, totally
hierarchical structure from top to bottom. But your brain is
completely different – built on trillions of
abstractions or pathways to
data. Over the span of several millennia humans have been recording,
storing, retrieving, collaborating and sharing content. Brain processes
content in a way that is fundamentally unstructured and
abstract. Networked file
systems evolved to an abstraction based on addresses and universal
resource locators, not hierarchical, logical structures. The file system
suddenly became impractical and not scalable or interoperable. Web based
apps today like YouTube, Facebook, Instagram and other content based
systems don’t use file systems. But every enterprise today still relies on
those archaic file systems from the 60s. Some consider file systems to be
the best, worst option. Individual memories aren't stored in individual
files in the brain. Instead they are stored as
connections between things.
For example, if you went to the zoo when you were young, a connection
would be created between you, zoo animals, your parents, the weather, your
emotions at the time. So a single memory can be stored all over the brain,
and overlap with other related memories. You can't read the memory like
you read a file, but when you start think about one of those things, you
remember the things connected with it.
Hub neurons play an important role
not only in maintaining spontaneous network oscillatory activity but also
in the processing of sensory input from other brain areas. Some brain
regions have a central role in supporting integrated brain function,
marking them as network hubs. Some brain regions are highly connected,
acting as network hubs. Functional hubs emerge in primary areas and shift
to association areas during childhood. The complete network of neuronal
connections comprising the human brain is called the connectome.
Connections within this intricate network are distributed unevenly, such
that certain network elements possess a relatively large number of
connections, marking them as putative network hubs. Brain hubs facilitate
the integration of functionally specialized and anatomically disparate
neural systems a role supported by their tendency to form long-range
connections and their topological position within the brain, which
suggests that they mediate a large fraction of signal traffic. In the
mature adult human brain, hubs typically localize to areas of association
cortex, basal ganglia and thalamus – regions that play a central role in
higher-order cognition. Human brain development unfolds over a protracted
period, extending across 2–3 decades and following a series of sequential
yet overlapping stages, including neuronal migration, axonal growth,
synaptogenesis,
synaptic pruning and myelination. hub connectivity during
prenatal and infant development, childhood, and adolescence, focusing on
where hubs are located, how hub connectivity changes through development,
and how hubs may be related to cognitive abilities. We draw a distinction
between structural connectivity networks, which reflect the physical
infrastructure of the brain and constrain the potential communication
capacity between brain regions, and functional connectivity networks,
which more directly index the actual dynamics taking place in the network.
hub neurons are amongst the earliest-emerging neurons, all being born
prior to any signs of movement in the animal. The localization of
functional hubs to primary sensory and motor areas of the prenatal/neonate
brain is thought to be linked to the initial development of cognitive,
motor and visual processes. It may also reflect the relative structural
immaturity of long-range fibers that link spatially disparate association
areas, given that these long-range fibers undergo myelination well into
the third and fourth decades of life, and that primary systems are
relatively localized, and dominated by short-range connectivity. Thus, an
adult-like binary topology of hub connectivity may be established early,
but its relative immaturity may limit its role in promoting integrative
dynamics, which are only fully realized when long-range projections have
completely myelinated. This early immaturity would be expected to produce
dynamics that are predominantly segregated, resulting in a preponderance
of functional connectivity hubs in early-developing primary areas.
Functional hubs may then shift to
association areas as long-range
projection fibers myelinate and enable more integrated processing. The
spatial topography of structural and functional hubs is consistent from
childhood to adulthood. While the binary topology of the structural
connectome is highly stable by childhood, the strength of hub connectivity
undergoes further changes. During childhood, the fractional anisotropy
(FA) of hub connections increases, and these increases are greater than
those observed for other types of connections. In parallel, the mean
diffusivity (MD) in frontal and parietal association fibers also showed
the largest changes during childhood and adolescence. FA and MD measure
the extent to which axonal bundles constrain the direction and magnitude
of water diffusion and are often taken as a markers of
white matter
integrity. Thus, changes in these measures are thought to reflect the
maturation of hub connections, possibly due to factors such as myelination
and denser packing of axons. However, FA and MD can be affected by
numerous microstructural changes and other factors related to data
acquisition, meaning that their physiological significance can be hard to
interpret. As the strength of hub connectivity increases in childhood, it
is expected that hub areas should occupy a more topologically central role
in the network when connection weights are considered in the analysis.
Several studies of weighted networks have found that the centrality of
hubs in medial frontal and parietal regions does indeed increase from
early to late childhood, but that the centrality of lateral cortical hubs
decreases during this time. When a memory is created, information flows
from the cortex, the part of the brain rich in nerve cells, to the
hippocampus, the central switching point for memories in the brain. The
information flows in the opposite direction when we retrieve a memory. The
hippocampus is a small, curved formation located deep in the temporal lobe
of the brain. As part of the
limbic system, the
hippocampus has three primary
functions: forming new memories, learning, and emotions. The human mind
operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to
the next that is suggested by the
association of thoughts.
Selection by association, rather than indexing, may yet be mechanized.
Hub Neurons in Modulating Cortical Dynamics.
Brain Map is a
database
of neuronal cell types based on multimodal characterization of
single
cells to enable data-driven approaches to classification.
Brain Map -
Brain Span -
Vaop -
Eye Wire
Researchers construct first 'multiome' atlas of cell development in the
human cerebral cortex from before birth to adulthood. A team of
researchers has created the first 'multiome' atlas of
brain cell development in the human
cerebral cortex
across six broad developmental time points from fetal development into
adulthood, shedding new light on their roles during brain development and
disease. Analysis pinpointed regions of
chromatin associated with the regulation of genes known to play a
pivotal role in human brain development. Notably, they revealed that these
regulatory regions are often enriched for genetic signals associated with
increased risk for neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia or
bipolar disorder. In addition to creating the first atlas of human brain
cell development in the human cerebral cortex, the research team
prioritized 152 risk genes that play a causal role in a range of
neuropsychiatric disorders.
Neuroimaging Data-Sharing Initiative.
Neurotransmitter -
Neuromodulation -
Hormones
Researcher reveal insights into Brain Circuitry. Novel molecular
insights into how multiple cell types drive the formation and maturation
of brain circuits. A team studied synapses in the cerebral cortex, a brain
region that controls sensory information processing and motor control. The
study involved the use of mice that were missing the ?2?-1 receptor, which
is necessary for how neurons respond to signals coming from non-neuronal
cells called astrocytes. ?2?-1 is significant because it is also the
receptor for the commonly prescribed pain medication, gabapentin. With
?2?-1 missing, cortical neurons made very few synapses with each other,
showing that brain circuitry was highly impaired. Using a technique called
3D electron microscopy, the authors determined that
?2?-1 was also required for proper synapse structure. Risher et al.
further observed that ?2?-1 is able to promote synapse formation and
growth through a well-known signaling molecule called Rac1, while
promotion of ?2?-1 and/or Rac1 signaling is sufficient to restore brain
connectivity.
Complex brain cell connections in the cerebellum more common than
believed. Although the prevailing wisdom among neuroscientists is that P
urkinje
cells have just one primary
dendrite
that connects with a single climbing fiber from the brain stem, new
research shows that nearly all Purkinje cells in the human cerebellum have
multiple primary dendrites.
Researchers Launch Atlas of Developing Human Brain. Gene Expression
Study May Provide Insights into Autism, other Neurodevelopmental
Disorders.
Brain-like functions emerging in a metallic nanowire network. Emerging
fluctuation-based functionalities are expected to open a way to novel
memory device technology.
Multi-Dimensional Universe in Brain Networks -
Thinking Levels
Multi-Dimensional
Universe in Brain Networks Discovered (youtube)
Large-Scale Brain Network are collections of widespread brain regions
showing functional connectivity by statistical analysis of the fMRI BOLD
signal or other recording methods such as EEG, PET and MEG. An emerging
paradigm in neuroscience is that cognitive tasks are performed not by
individual brain regions working in isolation but by networks consisting
of several discrete brain regions that are said to be "functionally
connected". Functional connectivity networks may be found using algorithms
such as cluster analysis, spatial independent component analysis or ICA,
seed based, and others.
Synchronized brain
regions may also be identified using long-range synchronization of the
EEG, MEG, or other dynamic brain signals. The set of
identified brain areas that are linked together in a large-scale network
varies with cognitive function. When the cognitive state is not explicit
(i.e., the subject is at "rest"), the large-scale brain network is a
resting state network or
RSN. As a physical system with graph-like properties, a large-scale brain
network has both nodes and edges and cannot be identified simply by the
co-activation of brain areas. In recent decades, the analysis of brain
networks was made feasible by advances in imaging techniques as well as
new tools from graph theory and dynamical systems. Large-scale
brain networks are identified by their function and
provide a coherent framework for understanding cognition by offering a
neural model of how different cognitive functions emerge when different
sets of brain regions join together as self-organized coalitions. The
number and composition of the coalitions will vary with the algorithm and
parameters used to identify them. In one model, there is only the
default mode network and
the task-positive network, but most current analyses show several
networks, from a small handful to 17. The most common and stable networks
are enumerated below. The regions participating in a functional network
may be dynamically reconfigured. Disruptions in activity in various
networks have been implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders such as
depression, Alzheimer's, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, ADHD and
bipolar disorder. Because brain networks can be identified at various
different resolutions and with various different neurobiological
properties, there is no such thing as a universal atlas of brain networks
that fits all circumstances.
Deep inside the brain: Unraveling the dense networks in the cerebral
cortex. Researchers use 3-dimensional electron microscopy to map the
local connectome in the cerebral cortex. Mammalian brains, with their
unmatched number of nerve cells and density of communication, are the most
complex networks known. While methods to analyze neuronal networks
sparsely have been available for decades, the dense mapping of neuronal
circuits is a major scientific challenge. Researchers have now succeeded
in the dense connectomic mapping of brain tissue from the cerebral cortex,
and quantify the possible imprint of learning in the circuit. Unlike any
other organ, our brains contain extremely densely packed networks of
membranous cables that are used by our about 86 billion nerve cells for
communication amongst each other. Since each nerve cell in the main part
of mammalian brains, the so-called cerebral cortex, communicates with
about 1,000 other nerve cells via synapses placed along these cables over
long distances, one expects a total of about 5 million kilometers of wires
packed into our skulls -- more than 10 times longer than all highways on
our planet, in each of our brains. The cables we find in our (and other
mammalian) brains are as thin as 50 to 100 nanometers in diameter, about
1000th the diameter of our hairs. The resulting cable convolute is of such
density and magnitude, that for more than 100 years, researchers have been
able to only map connectivity between a miniscule fraction of neurons in a
given piece of brain.
Scientists Discover
Hidden Patterns of Brain Activity.
The Blue Brain Project
- A Swiss Brain Initiative.
Playground
Tensor Flow Tinker With a Neural Network Right Here in Your
Browser..
Cortex.
Researchers sorted Cells from the Cortex, the outermost shell and the
cognitive center of the brain, into 133 different "cell types" based on
the genes the cells switch on and off.
Holonomic Brain Theory
is a model of human cognition that describes the brain
as a holographic storage network. Pribram suggests these processes involve
electric oscillations in the brain's fine-fibered dendritic webs, which
are different from the more commonly known action potentials involving
axons and synapses. These oscillations are waves and create wave
interference patterns in which memory is encoded naturally, and the waves
may be analyzed by a
Fourier transform.
Brodmann Areas 1, 2 and 3 are the primary somatosensory
cortex; area 4 is the primary motor cortex; area 17 is the
primary visual cortex; and areas 41 and 42 correspond closely to
primary auditory cortex. Higher order functions of the
association cortical areas are also consistently localized to
the same Brodmann areas by neurophysiological, functional
imaging, and other methods.
(e.g., the consistent localization of Broca's speech and
language area to the left Brodmann areas 44 and 45). However,
functional imaging can only identify the approximate
localization of brain activations in terms of Brodmann areas
since their actual boundaries in any individual brain requires
its histological examination.
The brain is compartmentalized and is
divided
into sections and categories, with each brain part having many distinct
functions. The brain also has many senses and has many inputs for
information, internally and externally. And the brain has the ability to
process information in many different and productive ways. So its a good
idea to wire the brain correctly by
learning the right things at the right time. You have to know how the
brain works and be able to realize when the brain is not working right.
Every human is born with an incredible machine that we call the brain. Yet
there is no school, university or institution that teaches how the brain
works and how to
correctly install the
software that the brain needs in order to operate optimally,
productively, effectively and efficiently. When you see a person using a
powerful computer just to play a video game, it seems like a waste, for
the player and for the
under utilized technology. People are not using their brain
effectively or using technology effectively. People see their brain and
technology as just toys. This creates distractions and disconnects people
from reality. The crazy thing is that this is by design. People in power
want to stay in control, even if it means dumbing down the population.
This is why we need to make Human Knowledge a human right.
Youth with conduct disorder show widespread differences in brain structure.
Study of conduct disorder identifies new brain areas associated with the
disorder, offering future directions for research efforts and clinical
practice. The largest difference was a smaller area of the brain's outer
layer, known as the cerebral cortex, which is critical for many aspects of
behavior, cognition and emotion. A neuroimaging study of young people who
exhibit a persistent pattern of disruptive, aggressive, and antisocial
behavior, known as conduct disorder, has revealed extensive changes in
brain structure. The most pronounced difference was a smaller area of the
brain's outer layer, known as the cerebral cortex, which is critical for
many aspects of behavior, cognition and emotion.
Limbic System
Limbic
System is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the
thalamus, immediately underneath the medial
temporal lobe of the cerebrum primarily in the forebrain. The limbic system supports
a variety of functions including
emotion, behavior,
motivation, long-term
memory, and olfaction. Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic
system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of
memories.
The limbic system is also known as the paleomammalian cortex. Emotional
life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it critically aids the
formation of memories. With a primordial structure, the limbic system is
involved in lower order emotional processing of input from sensory systems
and consists of the amygdaloid nuclear complex (amygdala), mammillary
bodies, stria medullaris, central gray and dorsal and ventral nuclei of
Gudden. This processed information is often relayed to a collection of
structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon,
including the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, limbic thalamus,
hippocampus including the parahippocampal gyrus and subiculum, nucleus
accumbens (limbic striatum), anterior hypothalamus, ventral tegmental
area, midbrain raphe nuclei, habenular commissure, entorhinal cortex, and
olfactory bulbs.
Thalamus
Hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small
nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of
the hypothalamus is to link the
nervous system to
the
endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The
hypothalamus is responsible for certain
metabolic processes and other
activities of the
autonomic nervous system. It synthesizes and secretes
certain neurohormones, called releasing
hormones or hypothalamic
hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of
pituitary hormones. The hypothalamus controls body temperature,
hunger,
important aspects of parenting and
attachment behaviors,
thirst,
fatigue,
sleep, and circadian rhythms.
Homeostasis.
Paraventricular Nucleus of Hypothalamus is a neuronal
nucleus in the hypothalamus. It contains groups of neurons that can be
activated by stressful and/or physiological changes. Many PVN neurons
project directly to the posterior pituitary where they release oxytocin
into the general circulation. While the Supraoptic nucleus release
vasopressin. Other PVN neurons control various anterior pituitary
functions, while still others directly regulate appetite and autonomic
functions in the brainstem and spinal cord.
Thalamus is a part of
the brain that has several functions such as relaying of
sensory and motor
signals to the
cerebral cortex, and the regulation
of
consciousness, sleep, and
alertness. It is a midline symmetrical
structure of
two halves, within the vertebrate brain, situated between the
cerebral cortex and the midbrain. The medial surface of the two halves
constitute the upper lateral wall of the third ventricle.
Human Thalamus is an Integrative Hub for Functional Brain Networks.
Neural Netwoks.
Epithalamus is a
(dorsal) posterior segment of the diencephalon. The diencephalon is a part
of the forebrain that also contains the thalamus, the hypothalamus and
pituitary gland. The epithalamus includes the habenula and their
interconnecting fibers the habenular commissure, the stria medullaris and
the
pineal gland.
Stria Terminalis is a structure in the brain consisting of a band of
fibers running along the lateral margin of the ventricular surface of the
thalamus. Serving as a major output pathway of the amygdala, the stria
terminalis runs from its centromedial division to the ventromedial nucleus
of the hypothalamus. The activity of the bed nucleus of the stria
terminalis correlates with
anxiety
in response to threat monitoring. (BNST).
What is the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis?
Pituitary Gland
is an
Endocrine gland about
the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a
protrusion off the
bottom of the hypothalamus at
the base of the brain. The anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis)
is a lobe of the gland that regulates several physiological processes
(including
stress, growth,
reproduction, and lactation).
Hormones secreted from the
pituitary gland help control: growth,
blood pressure, certain functions of the
sex organs, thyroid glands and
metabolism as well as
some aspects of pregnancy, childbirth, nursing, water/salt concentration
at the kidneys,
temperature
regulation and
pain relief.
Thalamic Reticular Nucleus is part of the ventral thalamus
that forms a capsule around the thalamus laterally. However, recent
evidence from mice and fish question this statement and define it as
dorsal thalamic structure. It is separated from the thalamus by the
external medullary lamina. Reticular cells are GABAergic, and have discoid
dendritic arbors in the plane of the nucleus.
Superior Colliculus or optic tectum, forms a major component of the
midbrain. It is a
layered structure, with a
number of layers that varies by species. The layers can be grouped into
the superficial layers (stratum opticum and above) and the deeper layers
(the remaining layers).
Neurons in the superficial layers receive direct
input from the retina and respond almost exclusively to visual stimuli.
Many neurons in the deeper layers also respond to other modalities, and
some respond to stimuli in multiple modalities. The deeper layers also
contain a population of motor-related neurons, capable of activating eye
movements as well as other responses. The general function of the tectal
system is to direct behavioral responses toward specific points in
egocentric ("body-centered") space. Each layer contains a topographic map
of the surrounding world in retinotopic coordinates, and activation of
neurons at a particular point in the map evokes a response directed toward
the corresponding point in space. In primates, the superior colliculus has
been studied mainly with respect to its role in directing eye movements.
Visual input from the retina, or "command" input from the cerebral cortex,
create a "bump" of activity in the tectal map, which, if strong enough,
induces a saccadic eye movement. Even in primates, however, the superior
colliculus is also involved in generating spatially directed head turns,
arm-reaching movements, and shifts in attention that do not involve any
overt movements. In other species, the tectum is involved in a wide range
of responses, including whole-body turns in walking rats, swimming fishes,
or flying birds; tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs; fang-strikes in snakes; etc.
A brain circuit in the thalamus helps us hold information in mind.
Researchers have identified a circuit in the anterior thalamus that is
necessary for remembering how to navigate a maze. The thalamus, a small
structure located near the center of the brain, contributes to working
memory and many other executive functions, such as planning and attention.
The anterior thalamus is divided into three sections: ventral, dorsal, and
medial. The anterodorsal thalamus is involved in creating mental maps of
physical spaces, while the anteroventral thalamus helps the brain to
distinguish these memories from other memories of similar spaces.
Charting hidden territory of the human brain. Neuroscientist shave
discovered a novel, non-invasive imaging-based method to investigate the
visual sensory
thalamus, an important
structure of the human brain and point of origin of visual difficulties in
diseases such as dyslexia and glaucoma. The new method could provide an
in-depth understanding of visual sensory processing in both health and
disease in the near future.
Artificial Brain - Building a Human Brain
Artificial Brain describes research that aims to develop
software and hardware with
cognitive abilities similar to those of the
animal or human brain. Artificial brain is software and hardware with
cognitive abilities similar to those of the animal or human brain.
Research investigating "
artificial
brains" and brain emulation plays three important roles in science: An
ongoing attempt by neuroscientists to understand how the human brain
works, known as cognitive neuroscience. A thought experiment in the
philosophy of
artificial intelligence, demonstrating that it is possible, at least
in theory, to create a machine that has all the capabilities of a human
being. A long term project to create machines exhibiting behavior
comparable to those of animals with complex
central nervous system such as mammals and most particularly humans.
The ultimate goal of creating a machine exhibiting human-like behavior or
intelligence is sometimes called strong AI. An example of the first
objective is the project reported by Aston University in Birmingham,
England where researchers are using biological cells to create "neurospheres"
(small clusters of neurons) in order to develop new treatments for
diseases including Alzheimer's, motor neurone and Parkinson's disease.
Blue Brain Project aims to create a digital
reconstruction of the brain by reverse-engineering mammalian brain circuitry.
When I hear people say they want to build a human brain I can't help but laugh. If you want to build
a human brain there's this thing we have called
child birth. But
this time around you could actually
educate this child fully and
completely so the child grows up to be an intelligent human
being. Then this intelligent human can then find you and then
kick you in the balls for being such an ignorant moron. Build a
human brain, are you kidding me, are you that stupid, or are the
people funding you that stupid? You can't even work the brain you have,
and you want to build another brain on your own, you have a lot to learn.
I'm kidding of course. Because even then, some of the dumbest ideas can result in some
of the most amazing breakthroughs and discoveries. So the people
wanting to build a human brain will first have to figure out how
the human brain works, and in doing so, will most likely learn
something new, so this venture may not be a total waste of time,
unless this new information we learn
gets exploited and misused.
If the information and knowledge that is learned is not shared
with the public correctly, then the public will most likely not
know how to use this information effectively, and not benefit
from it, like they should. Like the
Hadron Collider, not everything that is learned is shared,
and not everything that is shared is learned.
Electronic
Synapses that can Learn, moving towards an artificial brain?
Artificial Synapses made from Nanowires.
Nanowire networks learn and remember like a human brain. Scientists
have demonstrated nanowire networks can exhibit both short- and long-term
memory like the human brain. To test the capabilities of the nanowire
network, the researchers gave it a test similar to a common memory task
used in human psychology experiments, called the N-Back task. An N-Back
score of 7, the average for people, indicates the person can recognize the
same image that appeared seven steps back.
Artificial nanofluidic synapses can store computational memory. In a
step toward nanofluidic-based neuromorphic -- or brain-inspired --
computing, engineers have succeeded in executing a logic operation by
connecting two chips that use ions, rather than electrons, to process
data.
Information
Storage Types.
AI's memory-forming mechanism found to be strikingly similar to that of
the brain. An interdisciplinary team consisting of researchers has
revealed a striking similarity between the memory processing of artificial
intelligence (AI) models and the hippocampus of the human brain. This new
finding provides a novel perspective on memory consolidation, which is a
process that transforms short-term memories into long-term ones, in AI
systems.
Artificial Intelligence
-
Brain to Brain Communication -
Self-Replicate -
Similarities -
Network
Researchers combine the power of AI and the connectome to predict brain
cell activity. With maps of the connections between neurons and
artificial intelligence methods, researchers can now do what they never
thought possible: predict the activity of individual neurons without
making a single measurement in a living brain.
Adaptive optical neural network connects thousands of artificial neurons.
International team of researchers develops photonic processor with
adaptive neural connectivity. Physicists working with computer
specialists have developed a so-called
event-based architecture, using photonic processors. In a similar way
to the brain, this makes possible the continuous
adaptation of the
connections within the neural network.
Scientists release state-of-the-art spike-sorting software Kilosort4.
Researchers have released Kilosort4, the newest version of a popular
spike-sorting software that enables scientists to make sense of the
mountains of data collected from recording the simultaneous activity of
hundreds of neurons. How do researchers make sense of the mountains of
data collected from recording the simultaneous activity of hundreds of
neurons? Neuroscientists all over the world rely on Kilosort, software
that enables them to tease apart spikes from individual neurons to
understand how the brain's cells and circuits work together to process
information.
Researchers 3D-print functional human brain tissue. It's an
achievement with important implications for scientists studying the brain
and working on treatments for a broad range of neurological and
neurodevelopmental disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.
Researchers create new template of the human brain. The new cortical
surface template improves mapping brain activity. Researchers have created
a new cortical surface template called 'OpenNeuro Average,' or 'onavg' for
short, which provides greater accuracy and efficiency in analyzing
neuroimaging data.
Quantum material exhibits 'non-local' behavior that mimics brain function.
Creating brain-like computers with minimal energy requirements would
revolutionize nearly every aspect of modern life. New research shows a
possible way to improve energy-efficient computing. New research shows
that electrical stimuli passed between neighboring electrodes can also
affect non-neighboring electrodes. Known as non-locality, this discovery
is a crucial milestone toward creating brain-like computers with minimal
energy requirements.
AI system self-organizes to develop features of brains of complex
organisms. Scientists have shown that placing physical constraints on
an artificially-intelligent system -- in much the same way that the human
brain has to develop and operate within physical and biological
constraints -- allows it to develop features of the brains of complex
organisms in order to solve tasks.
Building a better Brain-in-a-Dish, faster and cheaper. Researchers
report on the development of a new protocol for creating human cortical
organoids -- mini-brains derived directly from primary cells that can be
used to better explore and understand the real thing.
The rise of the Assembloid. Assembloids are 3-dimensional,
self-organizing cultures created by the combination of two or more
distinctly patterned organoids or an
organoid plus
additional cell or tissue type(s) that are used to model cell migration
and connectivity. Interneurons are born in deep regions of the brain, and
then they have to migrate all the way to the cortex. A team simulated the
migration of interneurons by creating assembloids containing two types of
organoids. One resembled an area deep in the brain called the subpallium,
where most interneurons are generated. The other organoid resembled the
cerebral cortex, where interneurons are supposed to end up. The process
worked just the way it's supposed to in assembloids containing typical
organoids. So next, the team used a gene-editing technique called CRISPR
to alter the organoids. This approach allowed the team to study the effect
of more than 400 genes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. And
they found that 46 of those genes were involved in either the generation
of interneurons, or with their migration. Knock out a part of those genes
and interneurons no longer arrived where they were supposed to. In the
cerebral cortex, interneurons serve as inhibitory neurons, which means
they act a bit like the brake in a car. The interneurons can release a
neurotransmitter that tells other neurons to reduce their activity.
Meanwhile, excitatory neurons act as the accelerator, telling other cells
to become more active. Brain networks rely on a delicate balance between
excitatory and inhibitory neurons.
Human brain cells in a dish learn to play Pong in real time. The
experiments are evidence that even brain cells in a dish can exhibit
inherent intelligence, modifying their behavior over time.
Realistic computer models of brain cells. Investigators have created
the most bio-realistic and complex computer models of individual brain
cells -- in unparalleled quantity. Their research details how these models
could one day answer questions about neurological disorders -- and even
human intellect -- that aren't possible to explore through biological
experiments.
Cerebral Organoid describes artificially grown,
in vitro, miniature
organs resembling the brain. Cerebral organoids are created by culturing
human pluripotent stem cells in a three-dimensional rotational bioreactor
and develop over a course of months. The human brain is an extremely
complex system of heterogeneous tissues and consists of an extremely
diverse array of neurons. This complexity has made studying the brain and
understanding how it works a difficult task in neuroscience, especially
when it comes to neurodegenerative diseases. The purpose of creating an in
vitro neurological model is to study these diseases in a more simple and
variable space; free of in vivo limitations, especially when working with
humans. The varying physiology between human and other mammalian models
limits the scope of study in neurological disorders. Cerebral organoids
are synthesized tissues that contain several types of
nerve cells and have
anatomical features that resemble mammalian brains. Cerebral organoids are
most similar to layers of neurons called the cortex and choroid plexus. In
some cases, structures similar to the retina, meninges and hippocampus can
form.
Stem cells have
the potential to grow into many different types of tissues and their fate
is dependent on many factors.
Society is not ready to make human brains, which is proven by
our current education
system. Scientists explain the
future ethical implications of this research with regards to brain organoids, a laboratory-made structure that is designed to grow and behave
like the brain. Stem cell research has allowed medicine to go places that
were once science fiction. Using
stem cells, scientists have manufactured
heart cells, brain cells and other cell types that they are now
transplanting into patients as a form of cell therapy. Eventually, the
field anticipates the same will be possible with organs.
Will future computers run on human brain cells? Breaking ground on new
field of '
organoid intelligence', which is
reproducing cognitive
functions, such as
learning and
sensory processing, in a
lab-grown human-brain.
Biological Computers use
biologically
derived
molecules — such as
DNA and/or
proteins — to perform digital or
real
computations. The development of biocomputers has been made possible
by the expanding new science of
nano-biotechnology.
Neuromorphic Engineering is the use of very-large-scale integration
systems containing electronic analog circuits to
mimic neuro-biological
architectures present in the nervous system. In recent times the term neuromorphic has been used to describe analog, digital, mixed-mode
analog/digital VLSI, and software systems that implement models of
neural
systems (for perception, motor control, or multisensory integration). The
implementation of neuromorphic computing on the hardware level can be
realized by oxide-based memristors, threshold switches, and transistors. A
key aspect of neuromorphic engineering is understanding how the morphology
of individual neurons, circuits, applications, and overall architectures
creates desirable computations, affects how information is represented,
influences robustness to damage, incorporates learning and development,
adapts to local change (plasticity), and facilitates evolutionary change.
Neuromorphic engineering is an interdisciplinary subject that takes
inspiration from biology, physics, mathematics, computer science, and
electronic engineering to design artificial neural systems, such as vision
systems, head-eye systems, auditory processors, and autonomous robots,
whose physical architecture and design principles are based on those of
biological nervous systems.
Researchers develop a material that mimics how the brain stores
information. First artificial synapse that reproduces learning during
sleep. Researchers have developed a magnetic material capable of imitating
the way the brain stores information. The material makes it possible to
emulate the synapses of neurons and mimic the learning that occurs during
deep sleep. Neuromorphic computing is a new computing paradigm in which
the behavior of the brain is emulated by mimicking the main synaptic
functions of neurons. Among these functions is neuronal plasticity: the
ability to store information or forget it depending on the duration and
repetition of the electrical impulses that stimulate neurons, a plasticity
that would be linked to learning and memory. Among the materials that
mimic neuron synapses, memresistive materials, ferroelectrics, phase
change memory materials, topological insulators and, more recently,
magneto-ionic materials stand out. In the latter, changes in the magnetic
properties are induced by the displacement of ions within the material
caused by the application of an electric field. In these materials it is
well known how the magnetism is modulated when applying the electric
field, but the evolution of magnetic properties when voltage is stopped
(that is, the evolution after the stimulus) is difficult to control. This
makes it complicated to emulate some brain-inspired functions, such as
maintaining the efficiency of learning that takes place even while the
brain is in a state of deep sleep (i.e., without external stimulation).
The researchers have developed a material based on a thin layer of cobalt
mononitride (CoN) where, by applying an electric field, the accumulation
of N ions at the interface between the layer and a liquid electrolyte in
which the layer has been placed can be controlled. "The new material works
with the movement of ions controlled by electrical voltage, in a manner
analogous to our brain, and at speeds similar to those produced in
neurons, of the order of milliseconds, We have developed an artificial
synapse that in the future may be the basis of a new computing paradigm,
alternative to the one used by current computers. By applying voltage
pulses, it has been possible to emulate, in a controlled way, processes
such as memory, information processing, information retrieval and, for the
first time, the controlled updating of information without applied
voltage. This control has been achieved by modifying the thickness of the
cobalt mononitride layers (which determines the speed of the ions motion),
and the frequency of the pulses. The arrangement of the material allows
the magnetoionic properties to be controlled not only when the voltage is
applied but also, for the first time, when the voltage is removed. Once
the external voltage stimulus disappears, the magnetization of the system
can be reduced or increased, depending on the thickness of the material
and the protocol how the voltage has been previously applied. This new
effect opens a whole range of opportunities for new neuromorphic computing
functions. It offers a new logic function that allows, for example, the
possibility of mimicking the neural learning that occurs after brain
stimulation, when we sleep profoundly. This functionality cannot be
emulated by any other type of existing neuromorphic materials. "When the
thickness of the cobalt mononitride layer is below 50 nanometers and with
a voltage applied at a frequency greater than 100 cycles per second, we
have managed to emulate an additional logic function: once the voltage is
applied, the device can be programmed to learn or to forget, without the
need for any additional input of energy, mimicking the synaptic functions
that take place in the brain during deep sleep, when information
processing can continue without applying any external signal.
Computation and Neural Systems explores the relationship between the
structure of neuron-like circuits/networks and the computations performed
in such systems, whether
natural or
synthetic. The program was designed to
foster the exchange of ideas and collaboration among engineers, neuroscientists, and theoreticians.
Making AI smarter with an artificial, multisensory integrated neuron.
A team focused on integrating a tactile sensor and a visual sensor so that
the output of one sensor modifies the other, with the help of visual
memory that can subsequently influence and aid the tactile responses for
navigation. This would not be possible if our visual and tactile cortex
were to respond to their respective unimodal cues alone. The researchers
fabricated the multisensory neuron by connecting a tactile sensor to a
phototransistor based on a monolayer of molybdenum disulfide, a compound
that exhibits unique electrical and optical characteristics useful for
detecting light and supporting transistors. The sensor generates
electrical spikes in a manner reminiscent of neurons processing
information, allowing it to integrate both visual and tactile cues. To
simulate touch input, the tactile sensor used triboelectric effect, in
which two layers slide against one another to produce electricity, meaning
the touch stimuli was encoded into electrical impulses. To simulate visual
input, the researchers shined a light into the monolayer molybdenum
disulfide photo memtransistor -- or a transistor that can remember visual
input, like how a person can hold onto the general layout of a room after
a quick flash illuminates it.
Teaching ancient brains new tricks. Scientists have found a way to
decode the brain activity associated with individual abstract scientific
concepts pertaining to matter and energy, such as fermion or dark matter.
2D Materials could be used to simulate brain synapses in computers.
Computers could mimic neural networks in the brain -- and be much more
energy efficient -- with a new computer component that mimics how the
brain works by acting like a synaptic cell. It's called an
electrochemical random access memory or ECRAM, and researchers have
developed materials that offer a commercially-viable way to build these
components.
New brain-like computing device simulates human learning. Like
Pavlov's dog, device can be
conditioned to learn by
association. Researchers developed new synaptic transistors that can
mimic the human brain's plasticity by simultaneously processing and
storing data. After connecting transistors into a device, researchers
conditioned it to associate light with pressure -- similar to how Pavlov's
dog associated a bell with food. The way our current computer systems work
is that memory and logic are physically separated. Currently, the memory
resistor, or "
memristor," is the
most well-developed technology that can perform combined processing and
memory function, but memristors suffer from energy-costly switching and
less biocompatibility. These drawbacks led researchers to the synaptic
transistor -- especially the organic electrochemical synaptic transistor,
which operates with low voltages, continuously tunable memory and high
compatibility for biological applications. Still, challenges exist.
The Octopus' Brain and the human brain share the same 'jumping genes'.
A new study has identified an important molecular analogy that could
explain the remarkable intelligence of these invertebrates. The neural and
cognitive complexity of the octopus could originate from a molecular
analogy with the human brain, according to a new study. The research shows
that the same '
jumping
genes' are active both in the human brain and in the brain of two
species, Octopus vulgaris, the common octopus, and Octopus bimaculoides,
the Californian octopus.
Scientists complete first map of an insect brain. This team's
connectome of a baby fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster larva, is the most
complete as well as the most expansive map of an entire insect brain ever
completed. It includes 3,016 neurons and every connection between them:
548,000.
New algorithm disentangles intrinsic brain patterns from sensory inputs.
Scientists have developed a new machine learning method that reveals
surprisingly consistent intrinsic brain patterns across different subjects
by disentangling these patterns from the effect of visual inputs.
Researchers Discover Hidden Brain Pattern
Team creates novel rabies viral vectors for neural circuit mapping.
New tools can detect microstructural changes in aging and Alzheimer's
disease brain neurons. A research team has created 20 new recombinant
rabies viral vectors for neural circuit mapping that offer a range of
significant advantages over existing tools, including the ability to
detect microstructural changes in models of aging and Alzheimer's disease
brain neurons.
Proteins
Protein are
large
biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long
chains of
amino acid residues. A
single protein can have over a 500,000
atoms.
Proteins are the most diverse biomolecules on Earth. Proteins perform a vast array of functions
within organisms, including
catalysing
metabolic reactions, DNA
replication, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one
location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their
sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the
nucleotide sequence of
their genes, and which usually results in
protein folding into a specific
three-dimensional structure that determines its activity.
Proteins, the components of our body that execute, control
and organize basically
all functions in our cells, are made out
of strings of amino acids, which -- like an origami -- are
folded into specific and complex three-dimensional structures
according to their desired functions. However, since folding and
maintaining of such structures is highly sensitive to
cellular or environmental
stress, proteins can potentially
misfold or form
clumps (aggregates). Such undesired
protein waste can be toxic for cells and may even lead to
cell death. Because several human
neurodegenerative diseases are known to be linked to an
accumulation of
abnormal protein aggregates, basic science aimed to
understand how cells remove cellular garbage is elementary for
designing strategies for a potential prevention or cure of such
disorders. Proteins are the workhorse molecules of life. Among
their many jobs, they carry oxygen, build tissue, copy
DNA for the next generation, and
coordinate events within and between
cells. There are
20 Molecules used to make proteins with
20 to the 100 power of variations.
Hydrophilic -
PH
(7.4).
Protein as a nutrient are
essential nutrients
for the
human body. They are one of the
building blocks of body tissue,
and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much
energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast,
lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and
defining characteristic of protein from a
nutritional standpoint is its
amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of
amino acids
linked together by peptide bonds. During human
digestion, proteins are
broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric
acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the
synthesis of the
essential amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There
are nine essential
amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in
order to prevent protein-energy
malnutrition and resulting death. They are
phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine,
isoleucine, lysine, and histidine. There are five dispensable amino acids
which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine,
aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. There are six
conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under
special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant
or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine,
cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the
essential amino acids in certain ratios. Some protein sources contain
amino acids in a more or less 'complete' sense. This has given rise to
various ranking systems for protein sources, as described in the article.
Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants:
meats,
dairy
products, fish and eggs as well as
grains,
legumes and nuts.
Vegetarians
and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of
plant proteins. It is commonly believed that athletes should consume a
higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical
performance.
Warning: Too much protein can
be bad for your health, especially protein from certain foods.
Protein
is an essential nutrient which helps form the structural
component of
body tissues and is used within many biological
processes, for example protein is used to make
enzymes,
antibodies to help us fight infection as well as
DNA the
building blocks to life. It’s also needed to make up muscle
tissue which in turn helps to keep our bodies active, strong,
and healthy. Most protein is stored in the body as muscle,
generally accounting for around 40-45% of our body’s total pool,
so it makes sense that if you increase activity, perhaps to
improve health and fitness or body composition, you also need to
consider protein as an important food group in your diet.
Our Bodies make roughly 20,000 different kinds of
Proteins. Some take the shape of molecular sheets. Others are
sculpted into fibers, boxes, tunnels, even scissors. A protein’s
particular shape enables it to do a particular job. Every protein in
nature is encoded by a gene. With that stretch of DNA as its guide, a cell
assembles a corresponding protein from
building blocks
known as
amino acids. Selecting
from twenty or so different types, the cell builds a chain of amino acids.
That chain may stretch dozens, hundreds or even thousands of units long.
Once the cell finishes, the chain
folds on itself,
typically in just a few hundredths of a second. Proteins fold because each
amino acid has an
electric charge.
Parts of the protein chain are attracted to one another while other parts
are repelled. Some
bonds between the
amino acids will yield easily under these forces; rigid bonds will resist.
Researchers ID body's 'quality control' regulator for protein folding.
New research could pave the way for novel drug therapies targeting the
site where
misfolds occur. When
folding fails among the approximately 7,000 proteins with an
origami-like complexity that regulate essential cellular functions, the
result can lead to one of a multitude of serious diseases ranging from
emphysema and cystic fibrosis to Alzheimer's disease. Fortunately, our
bodies have a quality-control system that identifies misfolded proteins
and marks them either for additional folding work or destruction, but how,
exactly, this quality-control process functions is not entirely known.
Researchers have now made a major leap forward in our understanding of how
this quality-control system works by discovering the 'hot spot' where all
the action takes place.
Protein Complex is a group of two or more associated polypeptide
chains. Protein complexes are distinct from multienzyme complexes, in
which multiple catalytic domains are found in a single polypeptide chain.
Protein complexes are a form of
quaternary structure. Proteins in a protein complex are linked by
non-covalent
protein–protein interactions. These complexes are a cornerstone of
many (if not most) biological processes. The cell is seen to be composed
of modular supramolecular complexes, each of which performs an
independent, discrete biological function.
Protein Synthesis (how
proteins are made) -
From DNA to Protein
- 3D (youtube) - This 3D animation shows how proteins are made in the
cell from the information in the DNA code.
Researchers use generative AI to design novel proteins. Researchers
have developed an artificial intelligence system that can create proteins
not found in nature using generative diffusion, the same technology behind
popular image-creation platforms such as DALL-E and Midjourney. Our model
learns from image representations to generate fully new proteins, at a
very high rate. All our proteins appear to be biophysically real, meaning
they fold into configurations that enable them to carry out specific
functions within cells. Proteins are made from
chains of amino acids that
fold into three-dimensional shapes, which in turn
dictate protein function.
Scientists expand the genetic alphabet to create new proteins. The
novel method uses sets of four RNA nucleotides--rather than the natural
three--to encode new, synthetic building blocks into proteins. Proteins
are composed of combinations of
20
different amino acids, arranged into diverse sequences like words. But
researchers trying to engineer biologic molecules with new functions have
long felt limited by those
20 basic
building blocks and strived to develop ways of putting new building
blocks -- called non-canonical amino acids -- into their proteins. Now,
scientists have designed a new paradigm for easily adding non-canonical
amino acids to proteins.
Insights into protein evolution. A research team has unveiled a
breakthrough in understanding how specific genetic sequences, known as
pseudogenes, evolve.
Pseudogenes are segments of DNA that once encoded proteins but have since
lost their ability to do so due to sequence degradation -- a phenomenon
referred to as devolution. Here, devolution represents an unconstrained
evolutionary process that occurs without the usual evolutionary pressures
that regulate functional protein-coding sequences. They identified
specific pseudogenes, such as cyclophilin A, profilin-1 and small
ubiquitin-like modifier 2 protein, where stabilizing mutations occurred in
regions crucial for binding to other molecules and other functions,
suggesting a complex balance between protein stability and biological
activity.
Neuroscientists discover new structure of important protein in the brain.
Crystallising and mapping a novel conformation of LeuT, a bacterial
protein that belongs to the same family of proteins as the brain's
so-called
neurotransmitter transporters. These
transporters are special proteins that sit in the cell membrane. As a kind
of vacuum cleaner, they reuptake some of the neurotransmitters that nerve
cells release when sending a signal to one another. Transporters are
extremely important for regulating the
signaling
between neurons in the brain and thus the balance of how the whole
system works.
Protein behavior can be predicted with simple math. Mutations affect
protein stability following remarkably simple rules. Researchers have
discovered that mutations affect protein stability following remarkably
simple rules. The discovery has profound implications for accelerating the
development of new treatments for diseases or the design of new proteins
with industrial applications.
Discovery of highly specific fatty acid attachment to proteins. A key
player in this modification process is protein fatty acid attachment
('protein fatty acylation'), akin to adding a specialized component (i.e.,
fatty acids) that allows proteins to anchor themselves to cellular
membranes.
Transport Proteins are responsible for the ongoing movement of
substrates into and out of a
biological cell. However, it is difficult to determine which
substrates a specific protein can transport.
Bioinformaticians have now developed a model -- called SPOT -- which
can predict this with a high degree of accuracy using artificial
intelligence. Substrates in
biological cells need to be continuously transported inwards and
outwards across the cell membrane to ensure the survival of the cells and
enable them to perform their function. However, not all substrates that
move through the body should be allowed to enter the cells. And some of
these transport processes need to be controllable so that they only occur
at a particular time or under specific conditions in order to trigger a
cell function.
Peptide
are short chains of
amino acids
linked by peptide (amide) bonds. Peptide is
a compound consisting of two or more amino acids
linked in a chain, the carboxyl group of each acid being joined to the
amino group of the next by a bond of the type -OC-NH-.
Peptides are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, and as an
arbitrary benchmark can be understood to contain approximately 50 or fewer
amino acids. Proteins consist of one or more polypeptides arranged in a
biologically functional way, often bound to ligands such as
coenzymes and
cofactors, or to another protein or other macromolecule (
DNA, RNA, etc.),
or to complex macromolecular assemblies. Finally, while aspects of the lab
techniques applied to peptides versus polypeptides and proteins differ
(e.g., the specifics of electrophoresis, chromatography, etc.), the size
boundaries that distinguish peptides from polypeptides and proteins are
not absolute: long peptides such as amyloid beta have been referred to as
proteins, and smaller proteins like insulin have been considered peptides.
Amino acids that have been incorporated into peptides are termed
"residues". A water molecule is released during formation of each amide
bond. All peptides except cyclic peptides have an N-terminal (amine group)
and C-terminal (carboxyl group) residue at the end of the peptide (as
shown for the tetrapeptide in the image).
Constrained Peptides represent a new class of peptide molecules
whose supramolecular structure is controlled via intra-molecular covalent
bonds, generally to confer upon them bio-chemical and/or physicochemical
properties superior to those of ordinary peptides.
Water -
Neuropeptides.
Protein
Precursor is an inactive protein or peptide that can be turned into an
active form by post-translational modification, such as breaking off a
piece of the molecule or adding on another molecule. The name of the
precursor for a protein is often prefixed by pro-. Examples include
proinsulin and proopiomelanocortin, which are both prohormones.
Protein Data Bank is a
database for the
three-dimensional structural
data of large
biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
The data, typically obtained by X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy,
or, increasingly, cryo-electron microscopy, and submitted by biologists
and biochemists from around the world, are freely accessible on the
Internet via the websites of its member organisations (
PDBe,
PDBj, and
RCSB -
youtube channel
-
PDB101). The PDB is overseen by an organization called the
Worldwide Protein
Data Bank, wwPDB. The PDB is a key in areas of structural biology, such as
structural genomics. Most major scientific journals, and some funding
agencies, now require scientists to submit their structure data to the PDB.
Many other databases use protein structures deposited in the PDB. For
example, SCOP and CATH classify protein structures, while PDBsum provides
a graphic overview of PDB entries using information from other sources,
such as Gene ontology.
Protein Atlas.
Motor Proteins are a class of
molecular motors
that can move along the cytoplasm of animal cells. They convert chemical
energy into mechanical work by the hydrolysis of
ATP.
Flagellar rotation, however, is powered by a
proton pump.
Serum is an amber, watery fluid, rich in
proteins, that separates out when
blood coagulates.
Whey
is the serum or watery part of
milk that is separated
from the
curd
in making
cheese.
Protein isoform
is an ambiguous term describing either several different forms of protein
coded from the same gene, or proteins with amino acid sequence and
functional similarities, even when they are products of different genes.
Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital
parts of living organisms, with many functions.
Protein Domain is a conserved part of a given protein sequence and
(tertiary) structure that can evolve, function, and exist independently of
the rest of the protein chain. Each domain forms a compact
three-dimensional structure and often can be independently stable and
Folded. Many proteins consist of several structural
domains. One domain may appear in a variety of different proteins.
Molecular evolution uses domains as
building blocks and these may be
recombined in different arrangements to create proteins with different
functions. Domains vary in length from between about
25 Amino Acids up to
500 amino acids in length. Domains often form functional units, such as
the calcium-binding EF hand domain of calmodulin.
Because they are independently stable, domains can be "swapped" by genetic
engineering between one protein and another to make chimeric proteins.
Proteins use a Lock and Key system to Bind to DNA. Scientists have
traditionally thought that
DNA Binding Proteins use patterns in the
genome's code of As, Cs, Ts, and Gs to guide them to the right location,
with a given protein only binding to a specific sequence of letters. In a
new study, scientists discovered that proteins must rely on another clue
to know where to bind: the DNA's three-dimensional shape. You can think of
DNA as a string of letters -- As, Cs, Ts, and Gs -- that together spell
out the information needed for the construction and
function of cells.
Each cell in your body shares the same DNA. So, for cells to take on their
differing roles, they must be able to turn on and off specific genes with
precise control. The genes active in a brain cell, for instance, are
different than those active in a skin cell.
Hemeproteins have diverse biological functions including the
transportation of
diatomic gases,
chemical catalysis, diatomic gas detection, and electron transfer. The
heme iron serves as a source or sink of
electrons during
electron transfer or
redox chemistry. In peroxidase reactions, the porphyrin molecule also
serves as an electron source. In the transportation or detection of
diatomic gases, the gas binds to the
heme iron.
During the detection of diatomic gases, the binding of the gas ligand to
the heme iron induces conformational changes in the surrounding protein.
In general, diatomic gases only bind to the reduced heme, as ferrous
Fe(II) while most peroxidases cycle between Fe(III) and Fe(IV) and
hemeproteins involved in mitochondrial redox, oxidation-reduction, cycle
between Fe(II) and Fe(III). It has been speculated that the original
evolutionary function of hemoproteins was electron transfer in primitive
sulfur-based photosynthesis pathways in ancestral cyanobacteria-like
organisms before the appearance of molecular oxygen. Hemoproteins achieve
their remarkable functional diversity by modifying the environment of the
heme macrocycle within the protein matrix. For example, the ability of
hemoglobin to effectively deliver oxygen to tissues is due to specific
amino acid residues located near the heme molecule. Hemoglobin reversibly
binds to oxygen in the lungs when the pH is high, and the carbon dioxide
concentration is low. When the situation is reversed (low
pH and high carbon
dioxide concentrations), hemoglobin will release oxygen into the tissues.
This phenomenon, which states that hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is
inversely proportional to both acidity and concentration of carbon
dioxide, is known as the Bohr effect. The molecular mechanism behind this
effect is the steric organization of the globin chain; a histidine
residue, located adjacent to the heme group, becomes positively charged
under acidic conditions (which are caused by dissolved CO2 in working
muscles, etc.), releasing oxygen from the heme group. Heme protein is a
protein that contains a heme prosthetic group. They are a large class of
metalloproteins. The heme group confers functionality, which can include
oxygen carrying, oxygen reduction, electron transfer, and other processes.
Heme is bound to the protein either covalently or noncovalently bound or
both. The heme consists of iron cation bound at the center of the
conjugate base of the porphyrin, as well as other ligands attached to the
"axial sites" of the iron. The porphyrin ring is a planar dianionic,
tetradentate ligand. The iron is typically Fe2+ or Fe3+. One or two
ligands are attached at the axial sites. The porphyrin ring has 4 nitrogen
atoms that bind to the iron, leaving two other coordination positions of
the iron available for bonding to the histidine of the protein and a
divalent atom. Hemeproteins probably evolved to incorporate the iron atom
contained within the protoporphyrin IX ring of heme into proteins. As it
makes hemeproteins responsive to molecules that can bind divalent iron,
this strategy has been maintained throughout evolution as it plays crucial
physiological functions. Oxygen (O2), nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) bind to the iron atom in heme proteins.
Once bound to the prosthetic heme groups, these molecules can modulate the
activity/function of those hemeproteins, affording signal transduction.
Therefore, when produced in biologic systems (cells), these gaseous
molecules are referred to as gasotransmitters.
Heme is a
coordination complex "consisting of an iron ion coordinated to a porphyrin
acting as a tetradentate ligand, and to one or two axial ligands." The
definition is loose, and many depictions omit the axial ligands. Many
porphyrin-containing metalloproteins have heme as their prosthetic group;
these are known as hemoproteins. Hemes are most commonly recognized as
components of hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood, but are also found in
a number of other biologically important hemoproteins such as myoglobin,
cytochromes, catalases, heme peroxidase, and endothelial nitric oxide
synthase.
Apolipoprotein are proteins that bind
lipids
(oil-soluble substances such as
fat and
cholesterol) to
form lipoproteins. They transport the lipids through the lymphatic and
circulatory systems. The lipid components of lipoproteins are insoluble in
water. However, because of their detergent-like (amphipathic) properties,
apolipoproteins and other amphipathic molecules (such as phospholipids)
can surround the lipids, creating the lipoprotein particle that is itself
water-soluble, and can thus be carried through water-based circulation
(i.e., blood, lymph). Apolipoproteins also serve as enzyme cofactors,
receptor ligands, and lipid transfer carriers that regulate the metabolism
of lipoproteins and their uptake in tissues.
Ribonucleoprotein is a nucleoprotein that contains RNA, i.e. it is an
association that combines a
ribonucleic
acid and an RNA-binding protein together. Such a combination can also
be referred to as a protein-RNA complex. These complexes play an integral
part in a number of important biological functions that include DNA
replication, regulating gene expression and regulating the metabolism of
RNA. A few examples of RNPs include the ribosome, the enzyme telomerase,
vault ribonucleoproteins, RNase P, hnRNP and small nuclear RNPs (snRNPs),
which have been implicated in pre-mRNA splicing (spliceosome) and are
among the main components of the nucleolus.
Transmembrane Protein is a type of integral
membrane protein that spans the entirety of the
biological membrane to which it is permanently attached. Many
transmembrane proteins function as gateways to permit the transport of
specific substances across the biological membrane. They frequently
undergo significant conformational changes to move a substance through the
membrane. Transmembrane proteins are
polytopic proteins that aggregate and precipitate in water. They
require detergents or nonpolar solvents for extraction, although some
of them (beta-barrels) can be also extracted using denaturing agents. The
other type of integral membrane protein is the
integral monotopic protein that is also permanently attached to the
cell membrane but does not pass through it.
Integral Membrane Protein is a type of membrane protein that is
permanently attached to the biological membrane. All transmembrane
proteins are IMPs, but not all IMPs are transmembrane proteins. IMPs
comprise a significant fraction of the proteins encoded in an organism's
genome. Proteins that cross the membrane are surrounded by annular lipids,
which are defined as lipids that are in direct contact with a membrane
protein. Such proteins can only be separated from the membranes by using
detergents, nonpolar solvents, or sometimes denaturing agents.
Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor is a protein
that, in humans, is encoded by the GDNF gene. GDNF is a small protein that
potently promotes the survival of many types of neurons. It signals
through GFRα receptors, particularly GFRα1.
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (brain maintenance)
FOXP2 Protein Speech & Language Gene is a protein that,
in humans, is encoded by the FOXP2 gene, also known as CAGH44, SPCH1 or
TNRC10, and is required for proper development of speech and language.
Initially identified as the genetic factor of speech disorder in KE
family, its gene is the first gene discovered associated with speech and
language. The gene is located on chromosome 7 (7q31, at the SPCH1 locus),
and is expressed in fetal and adult brain, heart, lung and gut.
Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by
the CADM1 gene.
Ras subfamily is
a family of related proteins which is
expressed in all
animal cell lineages and organs. All Ras protein family members belong to
a class of protein called small GTPase, and are involved in
transmitting signals
within cells (cellular signal transduction). Ras is the prototypical
member of the Ras superfamily of proteins, which are all related in 3D
structure and regulate diverse cell behaviours. When Ras is 'switched on'
by incoming signals, it subsequently switches on other proteins, which
ultimately turn on genes involved in cell growth, differentiation and
survival. Mutations in ras genes can lead to the production of permanently
activated Ras proteins. As a result, this can cause unintended and
overactive signaling inside the cell, even in the absence of incoming
signals. Because these signals result in cell growth and division,
overactive Ras signaling can ultimately lead to cancer. The 3 Ras genes in
humans (HRas, KRas, and NRas) are the most common oncogenes in human
cancer; mutations that permanently activate Ras are found in 20% to 25% of
all human tumors and up to 90% in certain types of cancer (e.g.,
pancreatic cancer). For this reason, Ras inhibitors are being studied as a
treatment for cancer and other diseases with Ras overexpression.
More than 30 percent of all human cancers – including 95 percent of
pancreatic
cancers and 45 percent
of colorectal cancers — are driven by mutations of the RAS family of
genes.
Shaping the social networks of neurons. Identification of a protein
complex that attracts or repels nerve cells during development. The three
proteins
Teneurin,
Latrophilin and FLRT hold together and bring neighboring
neurons into close contact, enabling the formation
of synapses and the exchange of information between the cells. In the
early phase of brain development, however, the interaction of the same
proteins leads to the repulsion of migrating nerve cells.
Exosome Complex is a multi-protein intracellular complex capable of
degrading various types of RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules. Exosome
complexes are found in both
eukaryotic cells and archaea, while in bacteria a simpler complex
called the degradosome carries out similar functions.
Driving force behind cellular 'protein factories' identified.
Researchers have identified the driving force behind a
cellular process
linked to neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's and motor neuron
disease. The
endoplasmic reticulum is the cell's protein factory, producing and
modifying the proteins needed to ensure healthy cell function. It is the
cell's biggest organelle and exists in a web-like structure of tubes and
sheets. The ER moves rapidly and constantly changes shape, extending
across the cell to wherever it is needed at any given moment.
Protein's 'silent code' affects how cells move. Two forms of the
ubiquitous protein actin differ by only four amino acids but are
dissimilar in 13% of their nucleotide coding sequences due to silent
substitutions. A new study reveals that these supposedly 'silent'
differences have an impact on how fast actin mRNA gets translated into
protein and subsequently on the protein's function in propelling cell
movement.
Powerful technique allows scientists to study how proteins change shape
inside cells. The scientists' new '
binder-tag'
technique allows researchers to pinpoint and track proteins that are in a
desired shape or '
conformation,' and to do
so in real time inside living cells. The scientists demonstrated the
technique in, essentially, movies that track the active version of an
important signaling protein -- a molecule, in this case, important for
cell growth. Understanding how proteins bend, twist, and shape-shift as
they go about their work in cells is enormously important for
understanding normal biology and diseases. But a deep understanding of
protein dynamics has generally been elusive due to the lack of good
imaging methods of proteins at work. Now, for the first
time, scientists at the UNC School of Medicine have invented a method that
could enable this field to take a great leap forward.
Conformational Change is a change in the shape of a macromolecule,
often induced by environmental factors. A macromolecule is usually
flexible and dynamic. Its shape can change in
response to
changes
in its environment or other factors; each possible shape is called a
conformation, and a transition between them
is called a conformational change. Factors that may induce such changes
include temperature,
pH,
voltage, light in
chromophores,
concentration of ions, phosphorylation, or the binding of a ligand.
Transitions between these states occur on a variety of length scales
(tenths of Å to nm) and time scales (ns to s), and have been linked to
functionally relevant phenomena such as allosteric signaling and enzyme
catalysis.
Conformation-Activity Relationship is the relationship between the
biological activity and the chemical structure or conformational changes
of a biomolecule. This terminology emphasizes the importance of dynamic
conformational changes for the biological function, rather than the
importance of static three-dimensional structure used in the analysis of
structure–activity relationships. The conformational changes usually take
place during intermolecular association, such as protein–protein
interaction or protein–ligand binding. A binding partner changes the
conformation of a biomolecule (e.g. a protein) to enable or disable its
biochemical activity.
Cellular proteins enable tissues to sense, react to mechanical force.
Cellular proteins that hold cells and tissues together also perform
critical functions when they experience increased tension. A new study
observed that when tugged upon in a controlled manner, these proteins --
called cadherins -- communicate with growth factors to influence in vitro
tumor growth in human
carcinoma cells.
Proteopathy refers to a class of diseases in which certain proteins
become
structurally abnormal, and thereby disrupt the function of cells,
tissues and organs of the body. Often the
proteins
fail to fold into their normal configuration; in this
misfolded state, the proteins can become
toxic in some way (a gain of toxic function) or they can lose their normal
function.
Prions
are
misfolded proteins with the ability to
transmit their misfolded shape onto normal variants of the same protein.
They characterize several fatal and transmissible neurodegenerative
diseases in humans and many other animals.
PRNP or
prion protein is the human gene encoding for the major prion protein PrP
(protease-resistant-protein, Pr for prion, and P for protein), also known
as CD230 (cluster of differentiation 230). Expression of the protein is
most predominant in the nervous system but occurs in many other tissues
throughout the body.
Prion Diseases,
also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or TSEs, are a
group of rare, fatal brain diseases that affect animals and humans. They
are caused by an infectious agent known as a prion, which is derived from
a misfolded version of a normal host protein known as prion protein.
Protein
Phosphorylation is a post-translational modification of proteins in
which an amino acid residue is phosphorylated by a protein kinase by the
addition of a covalently bound phosphate group. Phosphorylation
alters the
structural conformation of a protein, causing it to become activated,
deactivated, or modifying its function. The reverse reaction of
phosphorylation is called dephosphorylation, and is catalyzed by protein
phosphatases. Protein kinases and phosphatases work independently and in a
balance to regulate the function of proteins. The amino acids most
commonly phosphorylated are
serine,
threonine, and
tyrosine
in eukaryotes, and histidine in prokaryotes, which play important and
well-characterized roles in signaling pathways and metabolism. However,
many other amino acids can also be phosphorylated, including
arginine,
lysine,
and
cysteine.
Alzheimer's
Tau
Protein are proteins that stabilize
microtubules. They are
abundant in
neurons of the
central nervous system and are less common elsewhere, but are also
expressed at very low levels in CNS astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.
AI system can generate novel proteins that meet structural design targets.
These tunable proteins could be used to create new materials with specific
mechanical properties, like toughness or flexibility. A new
machine-learning system can generate protein designs with certain
structural features, and which do not exist in nature. These proteins
could be utilized to make materials that have similar mechanical
properties to existing materials, like polymers, but which would have a
much smaller carbon footprint.
Researchers have developed a new class of artificial proteins.
Structural biology: Molecular scissors caught in the act. Structure of
an enzyme crucial for tRNA maturation sheds light on cause of
neurodegenerative disorders. In all living organisms, the biomolecule
transfer RNA (tRNA) plays a fundamental role in protein production. tRNAs
are generated from precursor molecules in several steps. The enzyme tRNA
splicing endonuclease (TSEN), among other things, catalyzes one step in
this process. Mutations in TSEN lead to a neurodegenerative disorder
called pontocerebellar hypoplasia, which is associated with severe
disabilities and early death. Researchers have now deduced the function of
TSEN from its structure and in so doing paved the way in the search for
active substances against pontocerebellar hypoplasia. Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)
are among the most common types of RNA in a cell and are indispensable for
protein production in all known organisms. They have an important
"translation" function: They determine how the sequence of nucleic acids,
in which the genetic information is encoded, is transcribed into a
sequence of amino acids from which proteins are built. Transfer RNAs are
generated from precursor tRNAs (pre-tRNAs), which are converted in several
steps into the mature tRNA with a complex three-dimensional structure. In
some tRNAs, this includes a step in which a certain section, known as an
intron, is excised. In humans, the tRNA splicing endonuclease (TSEN)
performs this task. The enzyme RNA kinase CLP1, which binds directly to
TSEN, also plays a role in ensuring the correct conversion of tRNAs. If
TSEN and CLP1 are unable to interact with each other due to a genetic
mutation, it seems that tRNAs can no longer form correctly either. The
consequences of this are often seen in the development of
neurodegenerative disorders. One of these is pontocerebellar hypoplasia,
which leads to severe disabilities and premature death in earliest
childhood. This very rare progressive disorder manifests itself in an
abnormal development of the cerebellum and the pons, a part of the brain
stem. Although TSEN activity is essential for life, it was to date mostly
unclear how the enzyme binds pre-tRNAs and how introns are excised. The
lack of a three-dimensional structure of the enzyme also made it difficult
to assess the changes triggered by specific pathogenic mutations. By means
of cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) conducted at facilities of the
Julius-Maximilians University of Würzburg and of the Institute of
Biochemistry at Goethe University Frankfurt, researchers led by Dr. Simon
Trowitzsch from the Institute of Biochemistry at Goethe University have
now succeeded in shedding light on the three-dimensional structure of a
TSEN/pre-tRNA complex. With the aid of their cryo-EM reconstructions, the
research team was able to show for the first time how TSEN interacts with
the L-shaped pre-tRNA. TSEN then excises the intron from the long arm of
the L. "First, TSEN settles in the corner of the L. It can then recognize
both the short and the long arm as well as the angle between them,"
explains Trowitzsch. The TSEN subunit 54 (TSEN54) plays a key role in pre-tRNA
recognition, as the researchers have now been able to corroborate. The
subunit serves as a "molecular ruler" and measures the distance between
the long and the short arm of the L. In this way, TSEN recognizes at which
point the pre-tRNA needs to be cleaved in order to remove the intron. New
findings on the interaction of the RNA kinase CLP1 and the TSEN subunit
TSEN54 were a surprise: CLP1 evidently binds to an unstructured and thus
very flexible region of TSEN54. It is precisely this region that contains
an amino acid most frequently mutated in patients with pontocerebellar
hypoplasia. "For us, this is an important indication that drug development
in the future should concentrate on maintaining the interaction of TSEN
and CLP1," Samoil Sekulovski, first author of the study, is convinced. The
scientists now hope that the structural data will make it possible to
simulate models that can be used to search for potential active
substances. Trowitzsch sums up: "Although a promising therapy is still a
long way ahead of us, our structure indeed forms a solid foundation for a
better understanding of how TSEN works and what the disease patterns of
its mutants are."
Doubling down on known protein families. Using a novel computational
approach, researchers confirm microbial diversity is wilder than ever.
Harnessing the collective power of more than 26,000 microbiome datasets,
all accessible through the publicly available Integrated Microbial Genomes
& Microbiomes (IMG/M) database, they successfully crafted the Novel
Metagenome Protein Families (NMPF) Catalog. Metagenomic sequencing allows
researchers to study the entire genetic makeup of these communities via
whole genome sequencing of the samples, without being able to distinguish
which gene belongs to each individual microbial species within a
community. Therefore, the process hinges on referencing to existing genome
sequences. The team started with 8 billion metagenome genes from IMG (the
study also references data from the JGI's Genomes from Earth's Microbiome,
or GEM catalog). Then they removed any genes with even a remote similarity
to previously known genes, leaving them with around 1.2 billion novel
genes. There is still 70-80% of known microbial diversity out there that
is not yet captured genomically.
Scientists discover a previously unknown way cells break down proteins.
Short-lived proteins control gene expression in cells to carry out a
number of vital tasks, from helping the brain form connections to helping
the body mount an immune defense. These proteins are made in the nucleus
and are quickly destroyed once they've done their job. The mechanism
degrades short-lived proteins that support brain and immune functions. It
is well established that cells can break down proteins by tagging them
with a small molecule called
ubiquitin. The tag tells the proteasome that the proteins are no
longer needed, and it destroys them. However, sometimes the proteasome
breaks down proteins without the help of ubiquitin tags, leading
researchers to suspect that there was another, ubiquitin-independent
mechanism of protein degradation. One group of proteins that seemed to be
degraded by an alternative mechanism are stimuli-induced transcription
factors: Proteins rapidly made in response to cellular stimuli that travel
to the nucleus of a cell to turn on genes, after which they are rapidly
destroyed. Follow-up experiments revealed that in addition to Fos and
EGR1,
midnolin may also be involved in breaking down hundreds of other
transcription factors in the nucleus. With the aid of a machine learning
tool called
AlphaFold that predicts protein
structures, plus results from a series of lab experiments, the team was
able to flesh out the details of the mechanism. They established that
midnolin has a "Catch domain" -- a region of the protein that grabs other
proteins and feeds them directly into the proteasome, where they are
broken down. This Catch domain is composed of two separate regions linked
by amino acids (think mittens on a string) that grab a relatively
unstructured region of a protein, thus allowing midnolin to capture many
different types of proteins. Of note are proteins like Fos that are
responsible for turning on genes that prompt neurons in the brain to wire
and rewire themselves in response to stimuli. Other proteins like IRF4
activate genes that support the immune system by ensuring that cells can
make functional B and T cells. When cells have too much or too little of
transcription factors such as Fos, problems with learning and memory may
arise. In multiple myeloma, cancer cells become addicted to the immune
protein IRF4, so its presence can fuel the disease. The researchers are
especially interested in identifying diseases that may be good candidates
for the development of therapies that work through the midnolin-proteasome pathway.
Folding Proteins
Protein Folding is the physical process by which a
protein chain
acquires its native three-dimensional structure, a conformation that is
usually biologically functional, in an expeditious and reproducible
manner. It is the physical process by which a polypeptide folds into its
characteristic and functional three-dimensional structure from a random
coil. Each protein exists as an unfolded polypeptide or random coil when
translated from a sequence of mRNA to a linear chain of amino acids. This
polypeptide lacks any stable (long-lasting) three-dimensional structure
(the left hand side of the first figure). As the polypeptide chain is
being synthesized by a ribosome, the linear chain begins to fold into its
three-dimensional structure. Folding of many proteins begin even during
translation of the polypeptide chain. Amino acids interact with each other
to produce a well-defined three-dimensional structure, the folded protein
(the right hand side of the figure), known as the native state. The
resulting three-dimensional structure is determined by the amino acid
sequence or primary structure (Anfinsen's dogma). The correct
three-dimensional structure is essential to function, although some parts
of functional proteins may remain unfolded, so that protein dynamics is
important. Failure to fold into native structure generally produces
inactive proteins, but in some instances misfolded proteins have modified
or toxic functionality. Several neurodegenerative and other diseases are
believed to result from the accumulation of amyloid fibrils formed by
misfolded proteins. Many allergies are caused by incorrect folding of some
proteins, because the immune system does not produce antibodies for
certain protein structures. Denaturation of proteins is a process of
transition from the folded to the unfolded state. It happens in cooking,
in burns, in proteinopathies, and in other contexts. The duration of the
folding process varies dramatically depending on the protein of interest.
When studied outside the cell, the slowest folding proteins require many
minutes or hours to fold primarily due to proline isomerization, and must
pass through a number of intermediate states, like checkpoints, before the
process is complete. On the other hand, very small single-domain proteins
with lengths of up to a hundred amino acids typically fold in a single
step. Time scales of milliseconds are the norm and the very fastest known
protein folding reactions are complete within a few microseconds.
Understanding and simulating the protein folding process has been an
important challenge for computational biology since the late 1960s.
Welcome
to Fold it !! (youtube)
Folding
Proteins turned into a Game -
Cellular
Automaton -
Wolfram Physics
-
In-Vitro
Levinthal's Paradox states that trying to find the native folded state
of a protein by a random search among all possible configurations can take
an enormously long time. Yet proteins can fold in seconds or less. The
Levinthal paradox states that if a protein folds by randomly visiting
different conformations it would take far longer than the age of the
universe for a protein to fold, while experimentally proteins fold in
microseconds. This is a thought experiment in the field of computational
protein structure prediction; protein folding seeks a stable energy
configuration. An algorithmic search through all possible conformations to
identify the minimum energy configuration or the native state would take
an immense duration, however, in reality, protein folding happens very
quickly, even in the case of the most complex structures, suggesting that
the transitions are guided into a stable state through an uneven energy
landscape.
Knot
Theory is the study of
mathematical knots. While inspired by
Knots
which appear in daily life, such as those in shoelaces and rope, a
mathematical knot differs in that the ends are joined so it cannot be
undone, the simplest knot being a ring (or "unknot"). In mathematical
language, a knot is an embedding of a circle in 3-dimensional Euclidean
space.
Trefoil Knot -
Brunnian Link -
Reidemeister Move -
Net Knots
-
Animated knots -
Real Knots -
Untangling the mechanics of knots (youtube)
A.I. excels at creating new proteins beyond alphaFold. Over the past
two years, machine learning has revolutionized protein structure
prediction. Now there's a similar revolution in protein design. Biologists
show that machine learning can be used to create protein molecules much
more accurately and quickly than previously possible. By creating new,
useful proteins not found in nature, they hope this advance will lead to
many new vaccines, treatments, tools for carbon capture, and sustainable
biomaterials.
AlphaFold is an artificial intelligence program developed by Google's
DeepMind which performs predictions of protein structure. The program is
designed as a deep learning system.
Protein-Folding Simulations Sped up with New Algorithm.
Protein Structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an
amino acid-chain molecule.
Proteins are polymers –
specifically polypeptides – formed from sequences of amino acids, the
monomers of the polymer. A single amino acid monomer may also be called a
residue indicating a repeating unit of a polymer. Proteins form by amino
acids undergoing condensation reactions, in which the amino acids lose one
water molecule per reaction in order to attach to one another with a
peptide bond. By convention, a chain under 30 amino acids is often
identified as a peptide, rather than a protein. To be able to perform
their biological function, proteins fold into one or more specific spatial
conformations driven by a number of non-covalent interactions such as
hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, Van der Waals forces, and
hydrophobic packing. To understand the functions of proteins at a
molecular level, it is often necessary to determine their
three-dimensional structure. This is the topic of the scientific field of
structural biology, which employs techniques such as X-ray
crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, cryo electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and
dual polarisation interferometry to determine the structure of proteins.
Protein structures range in size from tens to several thousand amino
acids. By physical size, proteins are classified as nanoparticles, between
1–100 nm. Very large aggregates can be formed from protein subunits. For
example, many thousands of actin molecules assemble into a microfilament.
A protein generally undergoes reversible structural changes in performing
its biological function. The alternative structures of the same protein
are referred to as different conformational isomers, or simply,
conformations, and transitions between them are called conformational
changes.
The
structure of a protein is hierarchically arranged, from a primary to
quaternary structure. The wide variation in amino acid sequences accounts
for the different conformations in protein structure. Many protein
structures have now been determined and reveal that protein molecules can
adopt the same fold despite having very different sequences. It has been
suggested that, owing to different stereochemical constraints, the number
of ways that a sequence can fold may be limited.
Protein Quaternary Structure is the number and arrangement of multiple
folded protein subunits in a multi-subunit complex. It includes
organizations from simple dimers to large homooligomers and complexes with
defined or variable numbers of subunits. It can also refer to biomolecular
complexes of proteins with nucleic acids and other cofactors. Quaternary
structure exists in proteins consisting of two or more identical or
different polypeptide chains (subunits). Subunits are held together by
noncovalent forces; as a result, oligomeric proteins can undergo rapid
conformational changes that affect biological activity.
By running
Rosetta@home on
your computer when you're not using it you will speed up and extend our
efforts to design new proteins and to predict their
3-dimensional shapes. Proteins are the
molecular machines and
building blocks
of life.
Scientists Program Proteins to Pair exactly. Technique paves the way
for the creation of protein
nanomachines and for engineering of new cell functions.
Listening in to how proteins talk and learning their language. Machine
learning accelerates the design of synthetic proteins with desired
functions, facilitating future therapeutic, diagnostic and biotechnology
applications. We trained UniRep on about 24 million protein sequences for
roughly 3 weeks to enable it to predict sequences and their relationship
to features like protein stability, secondary structure, and accessibility
of internal sequences to surrounding solvents within proteins it had never
seen before.
Modeling Software
(engineering) -
Competitive
Programming.
Supercomputers help supercharge Protein Assembly. Using proteins
derived from jellyfish, scientists assembled a complex sixteen protein
structure composed of two stacked octamers by supercharging alone. This
research could be applied to useful technologies such as pharmaceutical
targeting, artificial energy harvesting, 'smart' sensing and building
materials, and more. Computational modeling through XSEDE allocations on
Stampede2 (TACC) and Comet (SDSC) refined measurements of structure. Using
supercomputers, scientists are just starting to design proteins that
self-assemble to combine and resemble life-giving molecules like
hemoglobin.
Nano Assembly.
Complex Molecules emerge without evolution or design. In biology,
folded proteins are responsible for most advanced functions. These complex
proteins are the result of evolution or
design by scientists. Now
scientists have discovered a new class of complex folding molecules that
emerge
spontaneously from simple
building blocks.
Biomolecular Structure is the intricate folded, three-dimensional
shape that is formed by a molecule of protein, DNA, or RNA, and that is
important to its function.
What Web Browsers and Proteins have in Common. Researchers discover
molecular 'add-ons' that customize protein interfaces. Researchers
discovered tiny bits of molecular material -- which they named "
add-ons"
-- on the outer edges of the protein interface that customize what a
protein can do. They chose the name because the add-ons customize the
interface between proteins the way
software add-ons customize a web
interface with a user.
On the Role of Anionic Lipids in charged Protein Interactions
with Membranes.
Protein Domain
Scientists have found a way to ‘unboil’ eggs – and it could be a
life-saver.
Designer Proteins fold DNA. Biophysicists construct complex hybrid
structures using DNA and proteins.
Journey to the
Center of the Mind - The Amboy Dukes (youtube - 1968) - Leave your cares
behind, Come with us and find, The pleasures of a journey to the
center of the mind. Come along if you care, Come along if you dare,
Take a ride to the land inside of your mind. Beyond the seas of thought,
Beyond the realm of what, Across the streams of hopes and dreams where
things are really not. Come along if you care, Come along if you dare,
Take a ride to the land inside of your mind. But please realize,
You'll probably be surprised, For it's the land unknown to man, Where
fantasy is fact, So if you can, please understand, You might not come
back. Come along if you care, Come along if you dare, Take a ride to
the land inside of your mind. How happy life could be, If all of
mankind Would take the time to journey to the center of the mind,
Would take the time to journey to the center of the mind, Center of the mind (The mind, the mind).