Electricity
Electricity is
the
movement of
free electrons through a
medium that is
produced by an
energy source, but it is
the
magnetic waves or
energy
field
around the
power lines that carries the electrical energy. So electricity
is more than a
physical
phenomenon associated with
stationary or the moving of
electrons and
protons.
Energy is made available by the flow of
electric
charge through a
conductor. Charge is the quantity of unbalanced electricity
in a body (either
positive (+) or
negative (-) and construed as an
excess or
deficiency of electrons.
Voltage causes electrons to
move in one
direction, like with
DC.
AC voltage moves in two directions.
Current flows from positive ions to negative ions.
High potential has
positive ions and low potential has negative ions. The flow of electrons
is from negative to positive and the current flows in opposite direction
to it. Current flows from high potential to low potential. Higher
potential is more positive charges. Lower potential is more negative
charges or no charge.
Ground.
Magnetics -
Physics -
Bioelectric -
Cells -
Waves -
Electric Field -
Static
-
Electronics
Electric Charge is the physical property of
matter that causes it to
experience a
force when placed in an
electromagnetic field. There are two
types of electric charges:
positive and
negative. Like charges repel and
unlike or opposite charges attract.
An object is negatively charged if it has an excess of
electrons, and is otherwise positively charged or uncharged. When
atoms don't have as many
electrons as they do protons, they carry a
charge.
Negative charge is carried by electrons, and
positive charge is
carried by the protons in the nuclei of
atoms.
Electric Discharge describes any flow of electric charge through a
gas, liquid or solid. The properties and effects of electric discharges
are useful over a wide range of magnitudes. Electric discharges can convey
substantial
energy to the electrodes at the ends of the discharge.
Discharge is the release and transmission of electricity in an applied
electric field through a medium such as a gas.
Electrostatic Discharge -
Lightning -
Capacitors -
Energy Types
-
Human Energy -
Balance -
HZ - SafetyWhen we learned how to
convert electricity into a
language, we realized that our
potential is endless.
Taming lightning is just the beginning.
The Big
Misconception About Electricity (youtube) -
What is Electricity? (youtube) -
How Electricity
Works. Animated (youtube)
Capacitive Coupling or electrostatic coupling, is how energy moves
between conductive elements that are separated by insulators. One example
is if you place two copper traces close to each other, the capacitive
coupling will cause the energy on one trace to be transferred to the
other.
AC is
Alternating Current or an electric current that reverses direction
sinusoidally
in a succession of
waves or curves. AC has no
polarity.
120 V.
DC is
Direct
Current or an electric current that flows in one direction
steadily, resulting in a constant
polarity.
Batteries -
Inverter.
Amps is the rate at which
electrons are flowing.
Ampere
is the basic unit of electric current.
Ampere.
Current is the flow of electricity through a
conductor.
Current -
Impedance.
Voltage is the the rate at which energy is drawn from a source.
Voltage
(pressure)
120 V and a
frequency of 60 Hz.
Watt is a unit of
power.
Watt
- Microwatt is one millionth (10-6) of a watt, abbreviated as µW.
Ohm is a unit of electrical
resistance equal to
the resistance between two points on a
conductor when a potential difference
of one volt between them produces a current of one ampere.
Ohm (wiki).
Capacitance is the
ability of a body to
store an electrical charge.
Battery.
Resistance of an
electrical conductor is a
measure of the
difficulty to pass an electric
current
through that conductor.
Voltge = Time x Resistance. Current equals
Voltage divided by Resistance (I=V/R), Resistance equals Voltage divided
by Current (R=V/I), and Voltage equals Current times Resistance (V=IR).
The important factor here is the temperature.
Ohm's Law states
that the current through a
conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.
Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives
at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship: I = V
R, where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is
the voltage measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the
resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law
states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the
current. Ohm's law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the
conductivity of the vast majority of electrically conductive materials
over many orders of magnitude of current. However some materials Ohm's
law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is
directly proportional to the current or electricity passing through the
resistance, and directly proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
The formula for Ohm's law is V=IR. non-ohmic do not obey Ohm's law.
Speed of
Electricity. The word electricity refers generally to the movement of
electrons (or other charge carriers) through a conductor in the presence
of a potential difference or an electric field. The speed of this flow has
multiple meanings. In everyday electrical and electronic devices, the
signals travel as
electromagnetic waves typically
at 50%–99% of the speed of light, while the electrons themselves
move much more slowly. The speed at which energy or signals travel down a
cable is actually the speed of the electromagnetic
wave traveling along (guided by) the
cable. i.e. a
cable is a form of a waveguide. The propagation of the wave is affected by
the interaction with the material(s) in and surrounding the cable, caused
by the presence of electric charge carriers (interacting with the
electric field component) and
magnetic dipoles (interacting with the
magnetic field component).
These interactions are typically described using mean field theory by the
permeability and the permittivity of the materials involved. The
energy/signal usually flows overwhelmingly outside the electric conductor
of a cable; the purpose of the conductor is thus not to conduct energy,
but to guide the
energy-carrying wave.
Voltage
is the difference in electric
potential between two points. The difference in electric potential
between two points (i.e., voltage) in a static electric field is defined
as the
work needed per unit of
charge to move a test charge between the two points. In the International
System of Units, the derived unit for voltage is named volt. In SI units,
work per unit charge is expressed as joules per coulomb, where 1 volt = 1
joule (of work) per 1 coulomb (of charge). The official SI definition for
volt uses power and current, where 1 volt = 1 watt (of power) per 1 ampere
(of current). This definition is equivalent to the more commonly used
'joules per coulomb'. Voltage or electric potential difference is denoted
symbolically by
∆V, but
more often simply as V, for instance in the context of Ohm's or
Kirchhoff's circuit laws. Electric potential differences between points
can be caused by electric charge, by electric current through a
magnetic field, by
time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of these three. A
voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or potential difference)
between two points in a system; often a common reference potential such as
the ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may
represent either a source of energy (
Electromotive Force) or lost, used,
or stored energy (potential drop). (voltage is also referred as
electric potential difference,
electric pressure or electric tension).
Voltage is the pressure
from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons
(current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as
illuminating a light. In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured in
volts (V). The term recognizes Italian physicist Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827), inventor of the voltaic pile—the forerunner of today's
household battery. In electricity's early days, voltage was known as
electromotive force (emf). This is why in equations such as Ohm's Law,
voltage is represented by the symbol E. Current returns to the power
source.
Voltage and the term "potential difference" are often used
interchangeably. Potential difference might be better defined as the
potential energy difference between two points in a circuit. The amount of
difference (expressed in volts) determines how much potential energy
exists to move electrons from one specific point to another. The quantity
identifies how much work, potentially, can be done through the circuit. A
household
AA alkaline battery, for example,
offers 1.5 V. Typical household electrical outlets offer 120 V. The
greater the voltage in a circuit, the greater its ability to "push" more
electrons and do work. Voltage/potential difference can be compared to
water stored in a tank. The larger the tank, and the greater its height
(and thus its potential velocity), the greater the water's capacity to
create an impact when a valve is opened and the water (like electrons) can
flow. Circuits are used to deliver energy to a load—from a small device to
a household appliance to an industrial motor. Loads often carry a
nameplate that identifies their standard electrical reference values,
including voltage and current. In place of a nameplate, some manufacturers
provide a detailed schematic (technical diagram) of a load's circuitry.
Manuals may include standard values.
Voltage Regulation is a measure of change in the voltage magnitude
between the sending and receiving end of a component, such as a
transmission or distribution line. Voltage regulation describes the
ability of a system to
provide near constant voltage over a wide range of
load conditions. The term may refer to a passive property that results in
more or less voltage drop under various load conditions, or to the active
intervention with devices for the specific purpose of adjusting voltage.
Transformer -
Inverter -
Power Supply (test
equipment) -
Measuring Voltage
Voltage Regulator Module is a buck converter that provides a
microprocessor the appropriate supply voltage, converting +5 V or +12 V to
a much lower voltage required by the
CPU, allowing
processors with different supply voltage to be mounted on the same
motherboard.
Amplifier is an electronic device that can
increase the power of a
signal (a time-varying voltage or current). It is a two-port electronic
circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the
amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a
proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of
amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio
of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit
that has a power gain greater than one.
When one Ampere flows, one
coulomb of charge passes “a point” every second. Each electron has a
charge of 1.602 x 10^-19 Coulombs, so you need 6.24 x 10^18 of them to
make a whole coulomb. That's 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 electrons per
second. One ampere equals one coulomb per second. To convert from amperes
to electrons per second, multiply that conversion factor by the current
strength in amperes. For example, in a current of 15 amps, 15 × (6.242 ×
1018) = 9.363 × 1019 electrons are flowing per second. In a current of 7
mA (0.007 amps), 4.369 × 1016 electrons are flowing per second.
A
100-watt light bulb uses 100 joules of energy per second, by definition of
a watt. Since there are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour.
mAh is 1/1000 of an Ah, to convert Ah (amp hours) to Joules just use
1000 x 3.6 = 3600 as the conversion factor instead of 3.6. )1 amp = 6.24 X
10 to 18 power electrons flowing per second).
Coulomb
is the International System of Units (SI) unit of electric charge. The
unit is the amount of electric charge (symbol: Q or q) transported by a
constant electric current of one ampere in one second. the elementary
charge (the charge of the proton and of the electron, but also of other
fundamental particles) is exactly 1.602176634×10-19 coulombs. Thus the
coulomb is the charge of exactly 1/(1.602176634×10-19) elementary charges,
which is approximately 6.2415090744×10^18 elementary charges (1.036×10-5
mol). The same number of electrons has the same magnitude but opposite
sign of charge, that is, a charge of -1 C.
Joule is
a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal
to the energy transferred to (or work done on) an object when a force of
one newton acts on that object in the direction of the force's motion
through a distance of one metre (1 newton metre or N m). It is also the
energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes
through a resistance of one ohm for one second.
Ion is an
atom or a
molecule in which the total number of
electrons is not equal to the total
number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative
electrical charge. Ions can be created, by either
chemical or
physical
means, via
ionization, which is the process by which an atom or a molecule
acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons to
form ions.
Speed of Electricity refers generally to the movement of electrons (or
other charge carriers) through a conductor in the presence of potential
and an electric field. The speed of this flow has multiple meanings. In
everyday electrical and electronic devices, the signals or energy travel
as
electromagnetic waves typically on the order of 50%–99% of the
speed of light, while the
electrons themselves move (drift) much more slowly. The speed at which
energy or signals travel down a cable is actually the speed of the
electromagnetic wave, not the movement of
electrons. Electromagnetic wave
propagation is fast and depends on the
dielectric constant of the material. In a vacuum the wave travels at
the speed of light and almost that fast in air. The
Speed of Sound is 4.689 miles in second., 768 mph or 12.8 miles a minute.
2D boundaries could create electricity. Engineers are working to
create piezoelectricity in two-dimensional phase boundaries. They could
power future nanoelectronics like sensors and actuators. The researchers
show the atomically thin system of a metallic domain surrounding
semiconducting islands creates a mechanical response in the material's
crystal lattice when subjected to an applied voltage.
Electronics
Electronics is the
science of controlling electrical energy
electrically, in which the
electrons have a fundamental role. Electronics
deals with electrical
circuits that involve active electrical
components
such as vacuum tubes,
transistors,
diodes,
integrated circuits, associated
passive electrical
components, and interconnection technologies. Commonly,
electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively
of active
semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such a
circuit is described as an
electronic circuit.
Heat-High Temperatures -
Noise
Micro Electronics relates to the study and manufacture (or
microfabrication) of very small electronic designs
and components.
Testing.
Low-Power Electronics are electronics that have been
designed to
use less
electric power, e.g. notebook processors.
Analogue Electronics
are electronic systems with a
continuously variable signal, in contrast to
digital electronics where signals usually take only two levels. The term
"analogue" describes the proportional relationship between a signal and a
voltage or current that represents the signal. The word analogue is
derived from the Greek word ανάλογος (analogos) meaning "proportional".
Digital Electronics
are electronics that handle
digital signals
– discrete
bands of
analog levels – rather than by continuous ranges as
used in
analog electronics. All levels within a band of values represent
the same information state. Because of this discretization, relatively
small changes to the
analog signal
levels due to manufacturing tolerance, signal attenuation or
noise do not leave the discrete envelope, and as a
result are ignored by signal state sensing
circuitry.
Solid-State Electronics are those circuits or devices
built entirely
from solid materials and in which the
electrons, or other charge carriers,
are confined entirely within the solid material. While solid-state can
include crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solids and refer to
electrical conductors, insulators and
semiconductors, the building
material is most often a crystalline semiconductor. Common solid-state
devices include transistors, microprocessor chips, and RAM. A specialized
type of RAM called flash memory is used in flash drives and, more
recently, solid-state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic
disc hard drive. Also means semiconductor electronics; electronic
equipment using semiconductor devices such as semiconductor diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits (ICs). The term is also used for
devices in which semiconductor electronics which have
no moving parts replace devices with moving
parts, such as the solid-state relay in which transistor switches are used
in place of a moving-arm electromechanical relay, or the solid state disk
(SSD) a type of semiconductor memory used in computers to replace hard
disk drives, which store data on a rotating disk.
Flexible
Electronics is a technology for assembling electronic circuits by
mounting electronic devices on flexible plastic substrates, such as
polyimide, PEEK or transparent conductive polyester film. Additionally,
flex
circuits can be screen printed silver circuits
on polyester. Flexible electronic assemblies may be manufactured using
identical
components used for rigid printed
circuit boards, allowing the board to conform to a desired shape, or to
flex during its use. An alternative approach to flexible electronics
suggests various etching techniques to thin down the traditional silicon
substrate to few tens of micrometers to gain reasonable flexibility (~ 5 mm bending radius).
Wearable Sensors -
Sensors
Customizable, Fabric-Like Supercapacitor Power source for Wearable
Electronics can be folded or stretched without losing its function.
Being highly stretchable, these flexible power sources are promising
next-generation 'fabric' energy storage devices that could be integrated
into wearable electronics.
NUS researchers achieve major breakthrough in flexible electronics.
Hard-to-Stretch Silicon becomes Superelastic. Formless And Hard
Silicon Could Be Grown Into Nanowires, Useful For Future Bendable Electronics.
Visualizing spatial distribution of electric properties at microscales
with liquid crystal droplets. The droplets show rotational and
translational behaviors under an applied voltage, enabling the
visualization of electric field distribution within microelectrodes.
Existing sensor probes for microelectrical devices can measure only their
average electric properties, providing no information on their spatial
distribution. Liquid crystal droplets (LCDs) -- microscopic droplets of
soft matter that respond to electric field -- are promising in this
regard. Accordingly, researchers recently visualized the electric field
and electrostatic energy distribution of microstructured electrodes by
recording the motion of LCDs under an applied voltage, making for high
detection accuracy and spatial resolution. Microelectromechanical systems
involve the use and development of micron-sized electrical devices such as
microelectrodes, sensors, and actuators that are integrated into computer
and smartphone chips. Fabricating such integrated MEMS devices is usually
a challenging task as these devices often deviate from their original
design owing to the defects introduced during their fabrication and
operation. This, in turn, limits their performance. Therefore, it is
crucial to identify and rectify these defects.
Electricians - Safety - Breakers - Wiring
Electrician is a
tradesperson specializing in electrical
wiring of buildings, stationary machines, and related equipment.
Electricians may be employed in the installation of new electrical
components or the maintenance and repair of existing electrical
infrastructure. Electricians may also specialize in wiring ships,
airplanes, and other mobile platforms, as well as data and cable.
Multi-Meter.
When in doubt, call a professional. An electrical impulse as small as 14 milliamps is enough to kill a person.
Electrical Safety Testing is essential to ensure
safe operating standards for
any product that uses electricity.
Electrical Safety Inspection Check List (pdf)
Electrical Safety Inspection List (pdf)
Power Outage
Safety Check List (image)
National Electric Code is the benchmark for safe electrical design,
installation, and inspection to protect people and property from
electrical hazards. The National Electrical Code or NEC, NFPA 70 is
enforced in all 50 states. Some of the
NEC Electrical Code Changes for 2023 are GFCI protection for
appliances, which has been expanded to include wall-mounted ovens,
counter-mounted cooking units, clothes dryers and microwave ovens. GFCI
protection is also expanded to include any cord- and plug-connected
appliance in kitchens, not just on countertops. In 2024, a new code
addresses the concerns surrounding
alternative
energy systems. It covers the requirements for interconnecting with
electric utilities, overcurrent protection, and new requirements for
screws or fasteners, to name a few.
Circuit Breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch
designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage
caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic
function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a
fuse, which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or
individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect
high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a
circuit breaker, or fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a
faulty system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection
Device).
Grounding.
Thermal Management of Electronics (over
heating and high temperatures)
Breaker Panel or
distribution board or
electric panel, is a component of an
electricity supply system that divides an electrical power feed into
subsidiary circuits while providing a
protective
fuse or
circuit breaker for each
circuit in a common enclosure. Normally, a main switch, and in recent
boards, one or more residual-current devices (RCDs) or residual current
breakers with
overcurrent protection
(RCBOs) are also incorporated.
Main Panel
is the breaker panel that takes the initial connection of electricity to
your home. It's the first line of defense against electrical surges and
can help to protect both you and your appliances from damage.
Subpanels are usually used to extend the
wiring for multiple branch circuits to a specific area of a home or to a
building at some distance away from the main panel. The space that may
need a subpanel usually has specific or heavy electric needs.
Switch is an
electrical component that can
"
make" or "
break" an
electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or
diverting it from one
conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores
the
conducting path in a circuit when
it is operated. It may be operated manually, for example, a light switch
or a
keyboard
button, may be operated by a moving object such as a
door,
or may be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or
flow. A switch will have one or more sets of contacts, which may operate
simultaneously, sequentially, or alternately. Switches in high-powered
circuits must operate rapidly to prevent destructive arcing, and may
include special features to assist in rapidly interrupting a heavy
current. Multiple forms of actuators are used for operation by hand or to
sense position, level, temperature or flow. Special types are used, for
example, for control of machinery, to reverse electric motors, or to sense
liquid level. Many specialized forms exist. A common use is control of
lighting, where multiple switches may be wired into one circuit to allow
convenient control of light fixtures. By analogy with the devices that
select one or more possible paths for electric currents, devices that
route information in a computer network are also called "switches" - these
are usually more complicated than simple electromechanical toggles or
pushbutton devices, and operate without direct human interaction.
Power Button -
Dimmer.
Electric Generator
Failure Modes of Electronics are failures that can be caused
by excess temperature, excess current or voltage, ionizing radiation,
mechanical shock, stress or impact, and many other causes. In
semiconductor devices, problems in the device package may cause failures
due to contamination, mechanical stress of the device, or open or short
circuits.
Fault in electronics is an
equipment failure attributable to some defect in a circuit like a loose
connection or insulation failure or short circuit etc..
Failure Rate is the frequency with which an engineered
system or component fails, expressed in failures per unit of time. It is
often denoted by the Greek letter λ (lambda) and is highly used in
reliability engineering.
Planed Obsolescence
(low quality, high waste)
Failure Analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing
data to determine the cause of a failure, often with the goal of
determining corrective actions or liability.
Short Circuit.
Fuse is an electrical
safety device that operates to provide
overcurrent protection of an electrical
circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when
too much current flows through it, thereby stopping or interrupting the
current. It is a sacrificial device; once a fuse has operated it is an
open circuit, it must be replaced or rewired, depending on type. Fuses
have been used as essential safety devices from the early days of
electrical engineering. Today there are thousands of different fuse
designs which have specific current and voltage ratings, breaking capacity
and response times, depending on the application. The time and current
operating characteristics of fuses are chosen to provide adequate
protection without needless interruption. Wiring regulations usually
define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Short
circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are the prime
or some of the reasons for fuse operation. A fuse is an automatic means of
removing power from a faulty system; often abbreviated to ADS (Automatic
Disconnection of Supply). Circuit breakers can be used as an alternative
to fuses, but have significantly different characteristics.
Solar Systems Safety Switches.
Power-System Protection is a branch of electrical power engineering
that deals with the protection of electrical power systems from faults
through the disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical
network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system
stable by isolating only the components that are under fault, whilst
leaving as much of the network as possible still in operation. Thus,
protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to
clearing system faults. The devices that are used to protect the power
systems from faults are called protection devices.
Surge Protector is an appliance or device
designed to protect
electrical devices from voltage spikes.
Sacrificial Part is a part of a machine or product that is
intentionally engineered to fail under
excess mechanical stress, electrical stress, or other unexpected and
dangerous situations. The sacrificial part is engineered to fail first,
and thus protect other parts of the system.
Predictable Failure.
Lockout-Tagout is a
safety procedure used in industry and research
settings to ensure that dangerous machines are properly shut off and not
able to be started up again prior to the completion of maintenance or
repair work. It requires that hazardous energy sources be "isolated and
rendered inoperative" before work is started on the equipment in question.
The isolated power sources are then locked and a tag is placed on the lock
identifying the worker who placed it. The worker then holds the key for
the lock, ensuring that only he or she can remove the lock and start the
machine. This
prevents accidental startup of a machine while it is in a
hazardous state or while a worker is in direct contact with it. Lockout-tagout
is used across industries as a safe method of working on hazardous
equipment and is mandated by law in some countries.
Kill
Switch is a
safety mechanism used to
shut off machinery in an
emergency, when it cannot be shut down in the usual manner. Unlike a
normal shut-down switch or shut-down
procedure, which shuts down all
systems in order and turns off the machine without damage, a kill switch
is designed and configured to abort the operation as quickly as possible
(even if it damages the equipment) and to be operated simply and quickly
(so that even a panicked operator with impaired executive functions or a
bystander can activate it). Kill switches are usually designed to be
noticeable, even to an untrained operator or a bystander.
Hardware Trojan – malware embedded in hardware; harder to detect and
fix than software vulnerabilities.
Internet kill switch – Single shut off mechanism for all Internet
traffic.
Security switch – Hardware device to protect computers, laptops,
smartphones and similar devices from unauthorized access or operation.
Blue light station – Combined emergency telephone and emergency
power-off switch in rapid transit stations and other points along
electrified railways.
USBKill
– Anti-forensic software designed to react to unfamiliar USB devices.
SawStop
– American table saw manufacturer a fast kill switch for table saws
triggered by electrical conductivity of user's finger.
Battleshort – Emergency override of safety features to complete a
mission the opposite of a kill switch, where a system is designed to
operate even if damage or injury will occur.
Polyphase System is a means of distributing
alternating-current electrical power. Polyphase systems have
three or more
energized electrical conductors carrying alternating currents with a
definite time offset between the voltage waves in each conductor. Polyphase systems are particularly useful for transmitting power to
electric motors. The most common example is the
three-phase power system
used for industrial applications and for
power transmission. A major
advantage of three phase power transmission (using three
conductors, as
opposed to a single phase power transmission, which uses two conductors),
is that, since the remaining conductors act as the return path for any
single conductor, the power transmitted by a
balanced three phase system
is three times that of a single phase transmission but only one extra
conductor is used. Thus, a 50% / 1.5x increase in the transmission costs
achieves a 200% / 3.0x increase in the power transmitted.
Wire is a
single usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are
used to bear mechanical loads or electricity and
telecommunications
signals. Wire is commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a
die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in various standard sizes, as
expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term 'wire' is also used more
loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in "multistranded wire",
which is more correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a
cable in
electricity. Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms.
Although usually circular in cross-section, wire can be made in square,
hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-sections, either for
decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency
voice coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky
toy, are made of special flattened wire.
Transmission Power Lines -
Transformers -
Thermal Insulator
Electrical
Wiring is the electrical wiring used to send and receive
electricity
using associated devices such as
switches, plugs, meters and
light fittings
that are used in buildings or other structures.
Electrical wiring uses
insulated conductors
that cover the wire so that it's safer to use.
Wiring Tips Video (reddit)
Wire
Gauge is a measurement of wire diameter. This determines the amount of
electric current a wire can safely carry, as well as its electrical
resistance and weight.
American Wire Gauge also known as the Brown & Sharpe wire gauge, is a
logarithmic stepped standardized wire gauge system used since 1857,
predominantly in North America, for the diameters of round, solid,
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire. Dimensions of the wires are
given in ASTM standard B 258. The cross-sectional area of each gauge is an
important factor for determining its current-carrying ampacity. Increasing
gauge numbers denote decreasing wire diameters, which is similar to many
other non-metric gauging systems such as British Standard Wire Gauge
(SWG), but unlike IEC 60228, the metric wire-size standard used in most
parts of the world. This gauge system originated in the number of drawing
operations used to produce a given gauge of wire. Very fine wire (for
example, 30 gauge) required more passes through the drawing dies than 0
gauge wire did. Manufacturers of wire formerly had proprietary wire gauge
systems; the development of standardized wire gauges rationalized
selection of wire for a particular purpose. The
AWG tables are for a single, solid and round conductor. The AWG of
a stranded wire is determined by the cross-sectional area of the
equivalent solid conductor. Because there are also small gaps between the
strands, a stranded wire will always have a slightly larger overall
diameter than a solid wire with the same AWG.
Dirty Electricity is a term that describes
the problem of
electromagnetic noise on the mains wiring of a house. Dirty
electricity is a growing type of electrical pollution linked to health
problems and disease. (also known as dirty mains, dirty power, or
electrical pollution).
Electrical
Wiring Tips -
Wires (image for reference only, colors may change)
Wire Colors
Meanings by Country (image)
Grounded (earthing) -
Voltage Sag (wiki) -
Voltage
Reduction (wiki) -
LED's
Define Electronics Terms
(App)
Brownout is an intentional or unintentional
drop in voltage in an electrical power supply system.
Electrical
Polarity is a term used throughout industries and fields that involve
electricity. There are two types of poles: positive (+) and negative (-).
This represents the electrical potential at the ends of a circuit. A
battery has a positive terminal (+ pole) and a negative terminal (- pole).
Interconnection of electrical device nearly always require correct
polarity to be maintained. Correct polarity is essential for the operation
of vacuum tube and semiconductor devices, many electric motors,
electrochemical cells, electrical instruments, and other devices.
Conventional current flows from the positive pole (terminal) to the
negative pole. Electrons flow from negative to positive. In a
direct current (DC) circuit, current flows in one
direction only, and one pole is always negative and the other pole is
always positive. In an
alternating current (AC)
circuit the two poles alternate between negative and positive and the
direction of the current (electron flow) reverses periodically.
In AC systems the two wires of a circuit alternate
polarity many times per second. In electrical power systems, all
wires carrying the same instantaneous polarity at any moment will have a
common identifying marking scheme, such as wire color. Depending on the
conventions used for wiring the power system, the color coding or other
marking may also indicate additional properties of the conductor, such as
its role as neutral in a power circuit. In a polyphase AC system,
identifying the wires belonging to a common phase is important to ensure
proper operation of the circuit. Where alternating current circuits are
used to carry signals such as audio, polarity is also required to ensure
proper function of the system. For example, a set of loudspeakers used for
stereo music reproduction will have all device terminals and wiring marked
to ensure the same instantaneous polarity, so that the resulting sound
produced by each speaker element is in the same phase and add correctly at
the listener's ear.
Insulator
Electrical Insulator is a material whose internal
electric charges do
not flow freely and very little electric current will flow through it
under the influence of an electric field. This contrasts with other
materials, semiconductors and
conductors, which
conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an
insulator is its resistivity. Insulators have higher
resistivity than
semiconductors or conductors.
A perfect insulator
does not exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of
mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all
insulators become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large
voltage is applied that the electric field tears electrons away from the
atoms. This is known as the breakdown voltage of an insulator. Some
materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity,
are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials,
even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to
prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages, and
thus are employed as insulation for electrical wiring and cables. Examples
include rubber-like
polymers and most
plastics which can be thermoset or
thermoplastic in nature. Insulators are used in electrical equipment to
support and separate electrical conductors without allowing current
through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical
cables or other equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also
used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach
electric power distribution or
transmission lines to utility poles and
transmission towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires
without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.
Circuit
Circuit is an electrical device that
provides a path for electrical
current to flow. A circuit can also mean an established itinerary of
venues or events that a particular group of people travel to. A journey or
route all the way around a particular place or area.
Electronic Circuit is composed of individual
electronic components,
such as
resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes,
connected by
conductive wires or traces
through which electric current can
flow. The combination of components and wires allows various simple and
complex operations to be performed: signals can be amplified, computations
can be performed, and data can be moved from one place to another.
Science Kits.
H Bridge
is an
electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a
load in opposite direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and
other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards or backwards. Most
DC-to-AC converters (power inverters), most AC/AC converters, the DC-to-DC
push–pull converter, most motor controllers, and many other kinds of power
electronics use H bridges. In particular, a bipolar stepper motor is
almost invariably driven by a motor controller containing two H bridges.
Feedback Loops.
Continuity Test is the checking of an electric circuit to
see if
current flows or that it is in fact a complete circuit. A continuity test
is performed by placing a small voltage (wired in series with an LED or
noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker) across the
chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged
components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open". Devices that
can be used to perform continuity tests include
multimeters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic
devices, generally with a simple light bulb that lights up when current
flows. An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of
wires so as to find the two ends belonging to a particular one of these
wires; there will be a negligible resistance between the "right" ends, and
only between the "right" ends.
Continuity Tester is an item of
electrical test equipment used to
determine if an electrical path can be established between two points;
that is if an electrical circuit can be made. The circuit under test is
completely de-energized prior to connecting the apparatus.
Short Circuit is an
electrical circuit
that allows a current to travel along an unintended path with no or a very
low electrical impedance. The electrical opposite of a short circuit is an
"open circuit", which is an infinite resistance between two nodes. It is
common to misuse "short circuit" to describe any electrical malfunction,
regardless of the actual problem.
Integrated Circuit (IC's)
Electrical Network is an interconnection of electrical
components
(e.g. batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches) or a model of
such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements (e.g. voltage
sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, capacitances).
Voltage Source
is a two terminal device which can maintain a fixed voltage.
Topology in electrical circuits is what connections exist between the components.
New curriculum improves students' understanding of electric circuits in
schools. Not only do secondary school students gain a better
conceptual understanding of electric circuits, but teachers also perceive
the curriculum as a significant improvement in their teaching.
Parallel - Series
Parallel Circuits have
multiple paths for the current to move along. If an item in
the
circuit is broken, current will continue to move along the other
paths, while ignoring the broken one. This type of
circuit is used for
most household electrical wiring. For example: when you turn off your TV,
it doesn’t also turn off your lights.
Components Connected in Parallel are
connected, so the
same voltage is applied to each component.
Parallel is when multiple components can share the same power source
separately without being effected by the other components.
Parallel Angles -
Parallel Computing.
When Wiring Solar Panels in Parallel, the amperage (current) is
additive, but the voltage remains the same. eg. If you had 4 solar panels
in parallel and each was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire array
would be 12 volts and 20 amps.
Solar Energy.
Series circuits have
only one path
for current to travel along. Therefore, all the current in the circuit
must flow through all the loads. A series circuit is a continuous, closed
loop - breaking the circuit at any point stops the entire series from
operating. An example of a series circuit is a string of old Christmas
lights - if one bulb breaks, the whole string turns off.
Components connected in Series are connected along a single path, so the
same
current flows through all of the components. Series is when components
are wired one after another on the same power line with each component
acting as a power relay for the next component.
When Wiring Solar Panels in a Series, the voltage is additive, but the
amperage remains the same. eg. If you had 4 solar panels in a series and
each was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire array would be 48 volts
and 5 amps. Remember: just like
batteries,
solar panels have a negative
terminal ( - ) and a positive terminal ( + ). Current flows from the
negative terminal through a load (current consumed by a piece of
equipment) to the positive terminal.
Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected
in series, parallel, or series-parallel. Components connected in
series are connected along a single conductive path, so the same current
flows through all of the components but voltage is dropped (lost) across
each of the resistances. In a series circuit, the sum of the voltages
consumed by each individual resistance is equal to the source voltage.
Components connected in parallel are connected along multiple paths so
that the current can split up; the same voltage is applied to each
component. A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is
known as a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in parallel
is known as a parallel circuit. In a
series circuit, the current that
flows through each of the components is the same, and the voltage across
the circuit is the sum of the individual voltage drops across each
component. In a
parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the
components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the currents
flowing through each component. Consider a very simple circuit consisting
of four light bulbs and a 12-volt automotive battery. If a wire joins the
battery to one bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb,
then back to the
battery in one continuous loop, the bulbs are said to be
in series. If each bulb is wired to the battery in a separate loop, the
bulbs are said to be in parallel. If the four light bulbs are connected in
series, the same amperage flows through all of them and the voltage drop
is 3-volts across each bulb, which may not be sufficient to make them
glow. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the currents through
the light bulbs combine to form the current in the
battery, while the
voltage drop is 12-volts across each bulb and they all glow. In a series
circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete. If one
bulb burns out in a series circuit, the entire circuit is broken. In
parallel circuits, each light bulb has its own circuit, so all but one
light could be burned out, and the last one will still function. -
All
About Circuits.
Solar Power
-
Batteries
-
Generators
-
Human Power
Linear is arranged in or extending along a
straight or nearly
straight lines.
Progressing from one stage to
another in a single series of steps; sequential. A circuit or
device having an output that is proportional to the input. Measured
lengthwise.
Linearity
is the property of a mathematical relationship or function which means
that it can be graphically represented as a straight line. Examples are
the relationship of voltage and current across a resistor (Ohm's law), or
the mass and weight of an object. Proportionality implies linearity, but
linearity does not imply proportionality.
Components
Electronic Component is any basic discrete device or
physical entity in an electronic system used to affect
electrons or their
associated fields.
Component is an abstract
part of something. Something determined in relation to something that
includes it.
Passive Component
may be either a component that consumes (but does not produce) energy
(
thermodynamic passivity), or a component that is incapable of power gain
(incremental passivity).
Computer
Components -
Batteries
Circuit Diagram
is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial
circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic
diagram shows the components and interconnections of the circuit using
standardized symbolic representations. The presentation of the
interconnections between circuit components in the
schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical
arrangements in the finished device. Unlike a
block diagram or
layout
diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual electrical connections. A
drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the
components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical design, or
wiring diagram. Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design),
construction (such as PCB layout), and maintenance of electrical and
electronic equipment.
Fuse (overcurrent protection)
Diode is a two-terminal electronic component that
conducts primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low
(ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in one direction, and
high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.
Capacitor is a
passive two-terminal electrical component
used to
temporarily store electrical energy in an
electric field.
Transistor is a
semiconductor device used to
amplify or
switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of
semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for
connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one
pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another
pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher
than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in
Integrated Circuits.
Memristors -
Computer Code.
Threshold
Voltage also called the gate voltage, commonly abbreviated as Vth or
VGS (th), of a field-effect transistor (FET) is the minimum gate-to-source
voltage differential that is needed to create a conducting path between
the source and drain terminals. When referring to a
junction
field-effect transistor (JFET), the threshold voltage is often called
"pinch-off voltage" instead. This is somewhat confusing since "pinch off"
applied to
insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET) refers to the channel
pinching that leads to current saturation behaviour under high
source–drain bias, even though the current is never off. Unlike "pinch
off", the term "threshold voltage" is unambiguous and refers to the same
concept in any field-effect transistor.
Resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to
reduce current flow, adjust signal levels,
to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission
lines, among other uses.
Potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating
contact that forms an adjustable
voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the
wiper, it acts as a
variable resistor or
rheostat. The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a
voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the
component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name.
Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature, more so
than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and
resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,
temperature sensors (negative temperature coefficient or NTC type
typically), self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating
heating elements (positive temperature coefficient or PTC type typically).
Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types: With NTC thermistors,
resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is commonly used as a
temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush current
limiter. With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises.
PTC thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used
to protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
Inductor also called a coil or reactor, is a passive
two-terminal electrical component which
resists changes in electric
current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire,
usually wound into a coil. Energy is stored in a magnetic field in the
coil as long as current flows. When the current flowing through an
inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor, according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
Bridge is a type of electrical circuit in which two circuit
branches (usually in parallel with each other) are "bridged" by a third
branch connected between the first two branches at some intermediate point
along them.
Connector is an electro-mechanical device used to join
electrical terminations and create an electrical circuit. Electrical
connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks (female-ended). The
connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for
assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two
wires or devices. An adapter can be used to effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.
Sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events
or
changes in its environment, and then provide a corresponding output. A
sensor is a type of transducer; sensors may provide various types of
output, but typically use electrical or optical signals.
Conductor - Superconductors
Conductor of Electricity
is an object or type of
material that allows the
flow of an electrical
current in one or more directions. A metal wire is a common electrical
conductor. Metals with the most free electrons or conductivity are
Graphene, silver,
copper, gold,
platinum and aluminum (develops film on the surface).
Resistance.
Conductivity electrolytic of an
electrolyte solution is a measure of its ability to conduct
electricity. The SI unit of conductivity is Siemens per meter (S/m).
Conductivity of Different Water Types:
Pure distilled and
deionized
water has a conductivity of 0.05 µS/cm, which corresponds to a
resistivity of 18 megohm-cm (MΩ). Seawater has a conductivity of 50 mS/cm,
and
drinking water has a
conductivity of 200 to 800 µS/cm. The permeate of an RO unit varies based
on the feed concentration and operating pressure.
The best topological conductor yet: Spiraling crystal is the key to exotic
discovery. X-ray research reveals samples are a new state of matter.
Semiconductor are
crystalline or
amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics,
the material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of
a
metal, like
copper, gold, etc. and an insulator, such as glass.
They are of high
resistance — higher than typical resistance materials,
but still of much lower resistance than
Insulators. Their resistance
decreases as their
temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to
that of a metal.
Integrated
Circuit.
Plastic Semiconductors. Conjugated
polymers, plastics that conduct
electricity like metals, using a simple dehydration reaction the only
byproduct of which is water. Nature has been using this reaction for
billions of years and industry more than a hundred. Poly(hetero)arenes,
one of the most studied classes of conjugated polymers which have been
used to make lightweight, low- cost electronics such as solar cells,
LED
displays, and chemical and biochemical sensors. Dehydration is a common
method to make
polymers, a chain of repeating molecules or monomers that
link up like a train. Nature uses the dehydration reaction to make complex
sugars from glucose, as well as proteins and other biological building
blocks such as cellulose. Plastics manufacturers use it to make everything
from nylon to polyester, cheaply and in mind-boggling bulk.
Insulator (not conductive)
Graphene is a 1,000 more times
conductive then copper.
Materials -
Nano-Materials (Nano Technologies)
Graphene on the way to Superconductivity. Scientists have found
evidence that double layers of
Graphene
have a property that may let them conduct current completely without
resistance. They probed the band structure at BESSY II with extremely high
resolution ARPES and could identify a flat area at a surprising location.
Carbon atoms have diverse possibilities to form bonds. Pure carbon can
therefore occur in many forms, as diamond, graphite, as nanotubes,
football molecules or as a honeycomb-net with hexagonal meshes, graphene.
This exotic, strictly two-dimensional material conducts electricity
excellently, but is not a superconductor. But perhaps this can be changed.
New super-conductors could take data beyond zeroes and ones. Molecules
that filter electron spin could add a new dimension to data encoding.
Smartphones may one day look just as obsolete as flip phones thanks to
spintronics, an incipient field of
research that uses electrons' spins to transfer electronic signals.
Researchers now report a keystone achievement: the development of a
conducting system that controls the spin of electrons and transmits a spin
current over long distances, without the need for the ultra-cold
temperatures required by typical conductors.
New superconductors can be built atom by atom. The future of
electronics will be based on novel kinds of materials. Sometimes, however,
the naturally occurring topology of atoms makes it difficult for new
physical effects to be created. To tackle this problem, researchers have
now successfully designed superconductors one atom at a time, creating new
states of matter. They are focusing on novel types of superconductors,
which are particularly interesting because they offer zero electrical
resistance at low temperatures. Sometimes referred to as "ideal diamagnets,"
superconductors are used in many quantum computers due to their
extraordinary interactions with magnetic fields. Theoretical physicists
have spent years researching and predicting various superconducting
states.
Nanotube Fiber antennas as capable as Copper. Fibers made of
carbon nanotubes configured as wireless antennas
can be as good as copper antennas but 20 times lighter.
Scientists discover material that can be made like a plastic but conducts
like metal. Breakthrough could point way to new class of materials for
electronics and devices. About 50 years ago, scientists were able to
create conductors made out of organic materials, using a chemical
treatment known as "doping," which sprinkles in different atoms or
electrons through the material. This is advantageous because these
materials are more flexible and easier to process than traditional metals,
but the trouble is they aren't very stable; they can lose their
conductivity if exposed to moisture or if the temperature gets too high.
Stringing nickel atoms like pearls into a string of of molecular beads
made of carbon and sulfur is now being tested.
Strontium Ruthenate is the first reported
perovskite superconductor
that did not contain copper.
Electrical Resistance and Conductance of an electrical
conductor is a measure of the difficulty to pass an electric current
through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance,
and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical
resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical
friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while
electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).
Electrical Impedance is the measure of the opposition that a
circuit presents to a
current when a
voltage is applied. The term complex
impedance may be used interchangeably. Impedance is the effective
resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current,
arising from the combined effects of
ohmic resistance and reactance.
High impedance, when only a small amount of current is allowed
through.
Characteristic Impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a
uniform transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and
current of a single wave propagating along the line; that is, a wave
travelling in one direction in the absence of reflections in the other
direction. Characteristic impedance is determined by the geometry and
materials of the transmission line and, for a uniform line, is not
dependent on its length. The SI unit of characteristic impedance is the
ohm.
Nominal
Impedance refers to the approximate designed impedance of an
electrical circuit or device.
Charge-Transfer Complex is an association of two or
more molecules, or of different parts of one large molecule, in which a
fraction of electronic charge is transferred between the molecular
entities. The resulting electrostatic attraction provides a stabilizing
force for the molecular complex. The source molecule from which the charge
is transferred is called the electron donor and the receiving species is
called the electron acceptor.
Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in certain
materials where
electrical resistance vanishes
and
magnetic flux fields are
expelled from the material. Any material exhibiting these properties
is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose
resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to
near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical
temperature below
which the
resistance drops abruptly to zero.
An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist
indefinitely with no power source.
Levitation -
Friction.
Superconductor is a phenomenon of exactly
zero electrical
resistance and expulsion of
magnetic flux fields occurring in certain
materials when cooled below a characteristic critical
temperature.
Organic Superconductor is a synthetic organic compound
that exhibits superconductivity at low
temperatures.
First Room
Temperature Superconductor And What It Means For Us (youtube) -
Anton Petrov.
Type-II Superconductor is characterized by the
formation of magnetic vortices in an applied
magnetic field. The vortex
density increases with increasing field strength.
Anti-Gravity.
Bringing a hidden Superconducting state to Light. High-power light
reveals the existence of superconductivity associated with charge
'stripes' in the copper-oxygen planes of a layered material above the
temperature at which it begins to transmit electricity without resistance.
Physicists uncover new competing state of matter in Superconducting
Material.
Scientists glimpse signs of a puzzling state of matter in a superconductor.
Known as 'pair-density waves,' it may be key to understanding how
superconductivity can exist at relatively high temperatures. Scientists
have found the first direct evidence that a mysterious phase of matter
known as the "
pseudogap" competes with
high-temperature superconductivity, robbing it of electrons that otherwise
might pair up to carry current through a material with 100 percent
efficiency.
Scientists break record for highest-temperature Superconductor.
Experiment produces new material that can conduct electricity perfectly.
Mapping the electronic states in an Exotic Superconductor. Scientists
mapped the electronic states in an exotic superconductor. The maps point
to the composition range necessary for topological superconductivity, a
state that could enable more robust quantum computing.
Novel material switches between electrically conducting and insulating
states. Approach could inform the design of quantum materials
platforms for future electronics.
Meissner Effect is the expulsion of a
magnetic field from a
superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state.
Niobium is used in various superconducting materials. These
superconducting alloys, also containing titanium and tin, are widely used
in the superconducting magnets of MRI scanners. Other applications of
niobium include welding, nuclear industries, electronics, optics,
numismatics, and jewelry. In the last two applications, the low toxicity
and iridescence produced by anodization are highly desired properties is a
chemical element with symbol Nb (formerly Cb) and atomic number 41. It is
a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, often found in the minerals
pyrochlore and columbite.
Room Temperature Superconductor
is a hypothetical material that would be capable of exhibiting
superconductivity at operating temperatures above 0° C (273.15 K). While
this is not strictly "room temperature", which would be approximately
20–25 °C, it is the temperature at which ice forms and can be reached and
easily maintained in an everyday environment. The highest temperature
known superconducting material is highly pressurized hydrogen sulfide, the
transition temperature of which is 203 K (−70 °C), the highest accepted
superconducting critical temperature as of 2015. By substituting a small
part of sulfur with phosphorus and using even higher pressures, it has
been predicted that it may be possible to raise the critical temperature
to above 0 °C and achieve room-temperature superconductivity. Previously
the record was held by the cuprates, which have demonstrated
superconductivity at atmospheric pressure at temperatures as high as 138 K
(−135 °C), and 164 K (−109 °C) under high pressure. Although some
researchers doubt whether room-temperature superconductivity is actually
achievable, superconductivity has repeatedly been discovered at
temperatures that were previously unexpected or held to be impossible.
Evidence for
Superconductivity at Ambient Temperature and Pressure in Nanostructures.
High-Temperature Superconductivity are materials that behave as
superconductors at
unusually high temperatures. Whereas "ordinary" or
metallic superconductors usually have transition temperatures
(temperatures below which they are superconductive) below 30 K (−243.2
°C), and must be cooled using liquid helium in order to achieve
superconductivity, HTS have been observed with transition temperatures as
high as 138 K (−135 °C), and can be cooled to superconductivity using
liquid nitrogen. Until 2008, only certain compounds of copper and oxygen
(so-called "
cuprates") were known to have
HTS properties, and the term high-temperature superconductor was used
interchangeably with cuprate superconductor for compounds such as bismuth
strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO) and yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO).
Several iron-based compounds (the iron pnictides) are now known to be
superconducting at high temperatures.
Buckyballs which are soccer-ball-shaped carbon molecules discovered at
Bell Labs in 1991, exhibit s-wave superconductivity at 40° Kelvin (-388°F,
-233°C), a very high temperature for superconductors. They can change the
behavior of a certain class of cuprates from d-wave to s-wave if they dope
it with sufficient amounts of the element cerium, which is a common
ingredient in glassware.
Thermal Conductivity -
Vacuum -
Magnetics -
Insulator -
Heat Sinks
Avogadro Constant is the number of constituent particles,
usually atoms or molecules, that are contained in the amount of substance
given by one
mole,
which is the unit of measurement in the International System of Units (SI)
for amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of a chemical
substance that contains as many elementary entities, e.g., atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, or photons, as there are atoms in 12 grams of
carbon-12 (12C), the isotope of carbon with relative atomic mass 12 by
definition. This number is expressed by the Avogadro constant, which has a
value of 6.022140857(74)×1023 mol-1. The mole is one of the base units of
the SI, and has the unit symbol mol.
Inverter
Voltage Regulator is designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage
regulator may be a simple
"feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It
may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more
AC or DC Voltages.
Valves.
Power Inverter is an electronic device or circuitry that changes
direct current or
DC to alternating current or
AC.
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of
mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry.
Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.
Circuitry that performs the opposite function, converting AC to DC, is
called a rectifier.
Solar Power.
Rectifier is an electrical device used to
convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) by
allowing a current to flow through the device
in
one direction only. Diodes work like
one-way valves within the rectifier to maintain this flow of
current. Electrical device that transforms alternating current into direct
current. The process is known as rectification, since
it "straightens" the direction of current. Physically, rectifiers take a
number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks
of copper and selenium oxide plates, semiconductor diodes,
silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor
switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and
motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used
a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead
sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC
power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for
use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as
rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect
presence of a flame. Because of the alternating nature of the input AC
sine wave, the process of rectification alone produces a DC current that,
though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many applications of
rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer
equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a
battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by
an electronic filter, which may be a capacitor, choke, or set of
capacitors, chokes and resistors, possibly followed by a voltage regulator
to produce a steady current. More complex circuitry that performs the
opposite function, converting DC to AC, is called an inverter.
Transformers -
Converter -
Thermodynamics
-
Actuator
Electronvolt is a unit of energy equal to approximately 1.6×10−19
joules (symbol J). By definition, it is the amount of
energy gained (or lost) by the
charge of a single electron moving across an electric potential difference
of one volt. 1 volt (1 joule per coulomb, 1 J/C) multiplied by the
elementary charge (e, or 1.6021766208(98)×10−19 C). Therefore, one
electronvolt is equal to 1.6021766208(98)×10−19 J. Historically, the
electronvolt was devised as a standard unit of measure through its
usefulness in electrostatic particle accelerator sciences, because a
particle with charge q has an energy E = qV after passing through the
potential V; if q is quoted in integer units of the elementary charge and
the terminal bias in volts, one gets an energy in eV. The electronvolt
is not a SI unit, and its definition is empirical (unlike the litre, the
light-year and other such non-SI units), where its value in SI units must
be obtained experimentally.
Static Electricity
Static
Electricity is an
imbalance of
electric charges within or on the
surface of a material. The charge remains until it is able to move away by
means of an electric current or electrical discharge. Static electricity
is named in contrast with current electricity, which flows through wires
or other
conductors and transmits energy. A static electric charge can be
created whenever two surfaces contact and separate, and at least one of
the surfaces has a high resistance to electric current (and is therefore
an electrical insulator). The effects of static electricity are familiar
to most people because people can feel, hear, and even see the spark as
the excess charge is neutralized when brought close to a large electrical
conductor (for example, a path to ground), or a region with an excess
charge of the opposite polarity (positive or negative). The familiar
phenomenon of a static shock – more specifically, an electrostatic
discharge – is caused by the neutralization of charge.
Kinetic Energy
(piezoelectric) -
Lightning
Electrostatics
is a branch of physics that deals with study of the electric charges at
rest. Since classical physics, it has been known that some materials such
as amber attract lightweight particles after rubbing. Electrostatic
phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other.
Such forces are described by
Coulomb's law. Even though electrostatically induced forces seem to be
rather weak, some electrostatic forces such as the one between an electron
and a proton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about 36 orders of
magnitude stronger than the gravitational force acting between them.
There are many examples of electrostatic phenomena, from those as simple
as the attraction of the plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it
from a package to the apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos, the
damage of electronic components during manufacturing, and photocopier &
laser printer operation. Electrostatics involves the buildup of charge on
the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. Although charge
exchange happens whenever any two surfaces contact and separate, the
effects of charge exchange are usually only noticed when at least one of
the surfaces has a high resistance to electrical flow. This is because the
charges that transfer are trapped there for a time long enough for their
effects to be observed. These charges then remain on the object until they
either bleed off to ground or are quickly neutralized by a discharge:
e.g., the familiar phenomenon of a static 'shock' is caused by the
neutralization of charge built up in the body from contact with insulated
surfaces.
Magnetism.
Triboelectric Effect is a type of
contact electrification on which certain materials become electrically
charged after they are separated from a different material with which they
were in contact. Rubbing the two materials each with the other increases
the contact between their surfaces, and hence the triboelectric effect.
Rubbing glass with fur for example, or a plastic comb through the hair,
can build up triboelectricity. Most everyday static electricity is
triboelectric. The polarity and strength of the charges produced differ
according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and
other properties.
How Friction Leads to Static Electricity. Tiny deformations in the
rubbed materials' surfaces give rise to voltages. Triboelectricity,
Flexoelectricity and
Friction are inextricably linked. At the nanoscale, all materials have rough surfaces with countless tiny
protrusions. When two materials come into contact and rub against one
another, these protrusions bend and deform.
Static Electricity could Charge our Electronics.
Electric Field
is a force field that surrounds
electric charges that
attracts or repels other electric charges.
Mathematically the electric field is a
vector field that associates to
each point in space the force, called the Coulomb force, that would be
experienced per unit of charge, by an infinitesimal test charge at that
point. The units of the electric field in the SI system are newtons per
coulomb (N/C), or volts per meter (V/m). Electric fields are created by
electric charges, and by time-varying magnetic fields. Electric fields are
important in many areas of physics, and are exploited practically in
electrical technology. On a microscopic scale, the electric field is
responsible for the attractive force between the
atomic nucleus and electrons
that holds atoms together, and the forces between atoms that cause
chemical bonding. The
electric field and the magnetic field together form the
electromagnetic force, one
of the four fundamental forces of nature.
Coulomb's
Law is an experimental law of physics that
quantifies the amount of
force between two stationary, electrically charged particles. The electric
force between charged bodies at rest is conventionally called
electrostatic force or Coulomb force. The quantity of electrostatic force
between stationary charges is always described by Coulomb's law.
Magnets.
Kinetic Energy
-
Capacitors
Static Electricity. Why does rubbing a balloon on your hair make it stick?
Electrostatic Generator is an electromechanical
generator that produces
static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous
current.
Graphene -
Francis Hauksbee Generator (wiki).
Hygroelectricity is a type of
static
electricity that forms on water droplets and can be transferred
from droplets to small dust particles. The phenomenon is common in the
earth's atmosphere but has also been observed in the steam escaping from
boilers. It was the basis for a proposal by
Nikola Tesla
to tap electricity from the air, an idea which has been recently revived.
Hygroelectric charge is the likely source of the electric charge
which, under certain conditions such as exist in thunderstorms, volcanic
eruptions and some dust storms, gives rise to
lightning.
Electrostatic Discharge is the
sudden flow of electricity between two
electrically charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or
dielectric breakdown. A buildup of static electricity can be caused by
tribocharging or by
electrostatic induction. The ESD occurs when differently-charged objects
are brought close together or when the dielectric between them breaks
down, often creating a visible spark. ESD can create spectacular electric
sparks (lightning, with the accompanying sound of thunder, is a
large-scale ESD event), but also less dramatic forms which may be neither
seen nor heard, yet still be large enough to cause
damage to sensitive
electronic devices. Electric sparks require a field strength above
approximately 40 kV/cm in air, as notably occurs in lightning strikes.
Other forms of ESD include corona discharge from sharp electrodes and
brush discharge from blunt electrodes. ESD can cause a range of harmful
effects of importance in industry, including gas, fuel vapour and coal
dust explosions, as well as failure of solid state electronics components
such as integrated circuits. These can suffer permanent damage when
subjected to high voltages. Electronics manufacturers therefore establish
electrostatic protective areas free of static, using measures to prevent
charging, such as avoiding highly charging materials and measures to
remove static such as grounding human workers, providing antistatic
devices, and controlling humidity. ESD simulators may be used to test
electronic devices, for example with a human body model or a charged
device model.
Electrostatic Discharge (youtube) -
Grounding -
Electromagnetic Pulse
(EMP)
Surge
Protector is an appliance or device designed to protect electrical
devices from
voltage
spikes.
Antistatic
Device is any device that reduces, dampens, or otherwise inhibits
electrostatic discharge; the buildup or discharge of static electricity,
which can damage electrical components such as computer hard drives, and
even ignite flammable liquids and gases.
Antistatic Bag
is a bag used for storing electronic components, which are prone to damage
caused by electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Faraday Bag.
Electromotive
Force is the electrical intensity or "
pressure" developed by a source
of electrical energy such as a
battery or
generator. The electrical
action produced by a non-electrical source. A device that
converts other forms of
energy into electrical energy (a "
transducer")
provides an emf as its output. (The word "
force"
in this case is not used to mean
mechanical force, as may be measured in
pounds or newtons.) In electromagnetic induction, emf can be defined
around a closed loop of
conductor as the
electromagnetic work that
would be done on an
electric charge (an
electron in this instance) if it
travels once around the loop. For a time-varying magnetic flux linking a
loop, the electric potential scalar field is not defined due to a
circulating electric vector field, but an emf nevertheless does work that
can be measured as a virtual electric potential around the loop. (While
electrical charges travel around the loop, their energy is typically
converted into
thermal energy due to the resistance of the conductor
comprising the loop.) In the case of a two-terminal device (such as an
electrochemical cell) which is modeled as a Thévenin's equivalent circuit,
the equivalent emf can be measured as the open-circuit potential
difference or "
voltage" between the two terminals. This potential
difference can drive an electric current if an external circuit is
attached to the terminals.
Faraday's Law of Induction is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an
electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a phenomenon
called
electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force
(i.e.,
voltage) across an electrical conductor in a
changing magnetic field. It is the fundamental operating principle of
transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators
and solenoids.
Corona Discharge is an
electrical discharge brought on by the
ionization of a fluid such as air surrounding a
conductor that is
electrically charged. Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in
high-voltage systems unless care is taken to limit the electric field
strength. A corona will occur when the strength of the
electric
field
(
potential gradient) around a conductor is high enough to form a
conductive region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or
arcing to nearby objects. It is often seen as a bluish (or other color)
glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high
voltages, and emits light by the same property as a gas discharge lamp. In
many high voltage applications corona is an unwanted side effect. Corona
discharge from high voltage electric power transmission lines constitutes
an economically significant waste of energy for utilities. In high voltage
equipment like Cathode Ray Tube televisions, radio transmitters, X-ray
machines and particle accelerators the current leakage caused by coronas
can constitute an unwanted load on the circuit. In air, coronas generate
gases such as ozone (O3) and nitric oxide (NO), and in turn nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), and thus nitric acid (HNO3) if water vapor is present.
These gases are corrosive and can degrade and embrittle nearby materials,
and are also toxic to people and the environment. Corona discharges can
often be suppressed by improved insulation, corona rings, and making high
voltage electrodes in smooth rounded shapes. However, controlled corona
discharges are used in a variety of processes such as air filtration,
photocopiers and ozone generators. Corona discharge is a process by which
a current flows from an electrode with a high potential into a neutral
fluid, usually air, by ionizing that fluid so as to create a region of
plasma around the electrode.
The ions generated eventually pass charge to nearby areas of lower
potential, or recombine to form neutral gas molecules.
Aura.
Electrohydrodynamics is the study of the dynamics of electrically
charged fluids. It is the study of the motions of ionized particles or
molecules and their interactions with electric fields and the surrounding
fluid. ESHD covers the following types of particle and fluid transport
mechanisms: electrophoresis, electrokinesis, dielectrophoresis,
electro-osmosis, and electrorotation. In general, the phenomena relate to
the direct conversion of electrical energy into kinetic energy, and vice
versa.
Natures Electric Properties
Electric Eel is
an electric fish, and the only species in its genus. Despite the name, it
is not an eel, but rather a knifefish. In the electric eel, some 5,000 to
6,000 stacked electroplaques can make a shock up to 860 volts and 1 ampere
of current (860 watts) for two milliseconds (ms). Such a shock is
extremely unlikely to be deadly for an adult human, due to the very short
duration of the discharge. Atrial fibrillation requires that roughly 700
mA be delivered across the
heart muscle for 30 ms or more, far longer than
the eel can produce. Still, this level of current is reportedly enough to
produce a brief and painful numbing shock likened to a stun gun
discharge, which due to the voltage can be felt for some distance from the
fish; this is a common risk for aquarium caretakers and biologists
attempting to handle or examine electric eels.
Electric Fish is
any fish that can generate electric fields. A fish that can generate
electric fields is said to be electrogenic while a fish that has the
ability to detect electric fields is said to be electroreceptive. Most
electrogenic fish are also electroreceptive. Electric fish species can
be found both in the ocean and in freshwater rivers of South America (Gymnotiformes)
and Africa (Mormyridae). Many fish such as sharks, rays and catfishes can
detect electric fields and are thus electroreceptive, but they are not
classified as electric fish because they cannot generate electricity. Most
common bony fish (teleosts), including most fish kept in aquaria or caught
for food, are neither electrogenic nor electroreceptive. Electric fish
produce their electrical fields from a specialized structure called an
electric organ. This is made up of modified muscle or nerve cells, which
became specialized for producing bioelectric fields stronger than those
that normal nerves or muscles produce. Typically this organ is located in
the tail of the electric fish. The electrical output of the organ is
called the electric organ discharge
Electric Organ is an organ common to all electric fish used for the
purposes of creating an electric field. The electric organ is derived from
modified nerve or
muscle tissue. The electric discharge from this organ is
used for
navigation,
communication, defense and also sometimes for the
incapacitation of prey.
Natural Batteries
-
Zero Point.
Electrolocation animals use this sense to locate objects around them.
This is important in ecological niches where the animal cannot depend on
vision: for example in caves, in murky water and at night. Many fish use
electric fields to detect buried prey. Some shark embryos and pups
"freeze" when they detect the characteristic electric signal of their
predators. It has been proposed that sharks can use their acute electric
sense to detect the
earth's magnetic field by detecting the weak electric
currents induced by their swimming or by the flow of ocean currents. The
walking behaviour of cockroaches can be affected by the presence of a
static electric field: they like to avoid the electric field. Cabbage
loopers are also known to avoid electric fields.
Electroreception
is the biological ability to perceive natural electrical stimuli. It has
been observed almost exclusively in aquatic or amphibious animals, since
salt-water is a much better conductor than air; the currently known
exceptions being the monotremes (echidnas and platypuses), cockroaches and
bees. Electroreception is used in electrolocation (detecting objects) and
for electrocommunication.
Electrocommunication is the communication method used by weakly
electric fishes. Weakly electric fishes are a group of animals that
utilize a communicating channel that is "invisible" to most other animals:
electric signaling. Electric fishes communicate electrically by one fish
generating an electric field and a second individual receiving that
electric field with its electroreceptors. The receiving side will
interpret the signal frequencies, waveforms, and delay, etc. The best
studied species are two freshwater lineages- the African Mormyridae and
the South American.
Bioelectrogenesis is the generation of electricity by living
organisms, a phenomenon that belongs to the science of electrophysiology.
In biological cells, electrochemically active transmembrane ion channel
and transporter
proteins, such as the
sodium-potassium pump, make electricity generation possible by
maintaining a voltage imbalance from an
electrical potential difference
between the intracellular and extracellular space. The sodium-potassium
pump simultaneously releases three Na ions away and influxes two K ions
towards the intracellular space. This generates an electrical potential
gradient from the uneven charge separation created. The process consumes
metabolic energy in the form of ATP.
Bioluminescence -
Photosynthesis
Electric Plants
-
Electric Universe -
Lightning
Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of
biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage changes
or electric current or manipulations on a wide variety of scales from
single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the
heart. In
neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of
neurons, and, in particular, action potential activity. Recordings of
large-scale electric signals from the nervous system, such as
electroencephalography, may also be referred to as electrophysiological
recordings. They are useful for electrodiagnosis and monitoring.
Videos about Electricity -
Westinghouse (youtube 1:52:20) -
Electric
Bacteria connect to form wires (youtube)
-
Way To
Splice Wires Manly-Man Skills: The Lineman Splice (youtube)
-
Nikola Tesla (videos)
Waves
Electromagnetic
Waves different from Sound Waves.
Sound waves require a material
medium to be transmitted through and travel at the
Speed of Sound, which is 343 meters per second (1,125 ft/s; 1,235
km/h;
767 mph; 667 kn), or a kilometre in
2.91 seconds or a mile in 4.69 seconds.
Electromagnetic waves do not
require a medium in order to be transmitted and they also travel much
faster than sound at the
Speed of
Light, which is 3.0 * 108 meters per second (299,792,458 meters per
second) or 186,000 miles per second or about
671
million miles per hour, in a
vacuum.
Anti-Gravity.
This speed and
distance of a Electromagnetic wave decreases when passing through a
medium. How far sound travels depends on the decibel level and the
medium it travels through.
Sound
Creates Shapes.
Radio Waves
-
Receiver -
Transmitter -
Antenna -
Physics -
Sound Noise -
Light
Wave in
physics is a
movement up and down or back and forth.
Move or swing back and forth. Move in a wavy pattern or with a rising and
falling motion. The act of
signaling by a movement of the
hand. Wave in
water is one of a series of
ridges that moves across the surface of a liquid or across a large body of water.
Fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal
over certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time,
geographical position or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random process.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio is a measure used in science and
engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of
background noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to the
noise
power, often expressed in decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than
0 dB) indicates more signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for
electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal (such as
isotope levels in an ice core or biochemical signaling between
cells).
Fourier Transform decomposes a function of time (a signal) into the
frequencies that make it up, in a way similar to how a musical chord can
be expressed as the amplitude (or loudness) of its constituent notes. The
Fourier transform of a function of time itself is a complex-valued
function of frequency, whose absolute value represents the amount of that
frequency present in the original function, and whose complex argument is
the phase offset of the basic sinusoid in that frequency.
Ultrasound are sound waves with frequencies higher than the
upper audible limit of
human hearing. Ultrasound is no different from
'normal' (audible) sound in its physical properties, except in that humans
cannot hear it. This limit varies from person to person and is
approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in healthy, young adults.
Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz.
Sound -
Voice -
Music -
Vacuum -
Magnetics
Wave or Particle?
Observation Flaws.
Frequency is the
number of occurrences of a
repeating event
per unit
time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency, which
emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency and angular frequency. The
period is the
duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, so the
period is the reciprocal of the frequency. For example, if a newborn
baby's heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period—the
time interval between beats—is half a second (that is, 60 seconds divided
by 120 beats). Frequency is an important parameter used in science and
engineering to specify the
rate of
oscillatory and vibratory phenomena,
such as
mechanical vibrations,
audio
sound signals,
radio waves,
light and
brain waves.
Very
Low Frequency is the ITU designation for radio frequencies (RF) in the
range of 3 kHz to 30 kHz and corresponding wavelengths from 100 to 10
kilometres, respectively.
Electromagnetic
Spectrum.
Frequency
of a
wave refers to the number of waves that pass through a point in one
second.
Period is the amount of time it
takes one wave cycle to pass the given point.
Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate with greater
amplitude at some frequencies than at others.
Resonant Frequency of any given system is the frequency at which
the maximum-amplitude oscillation occurs.
MIMO is a
method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple
transmit and receive antennas to exploit multipath propagation. At one
time, in
wireless the term "MIMO" referred to the use of multiple antennas
at the transmitter and the receiver. In modern usage, "MIMO" specifically
refers to a practical technique for sending and receiving more than one
data signal simultaneously over the same radio channel by exploiting
multipath propagation. MIMO is fundamentally different from smart antenna
techniques developed to enhance the performance of a single data signal,
such as
beamforming and diversity.
Antenna Array is a set of multiple connected antennas which work
together as a single antenna, to transmit or receive radio waves.
Array (matrix)
Sensor Array is a group of
sensors, usually
deployed in a certain geometry pattern, used for collecting and processing
electromagnetic or acoustic signals. The advantage of using a sensor array
over using a single sensor lies in the fact that an
Array adds new
dimensions to the observation, helping to estimate more parameters and
improve the estimation performance.
Latency in
audio refers to a short period of delay (usually measured in
milliseconds) between when an audio
signal enters and when
it emerges from a system. Potential contributors to latency in an audio
system include analog-to-digital conversion, buffering, digital signal
processing, transmission time,
digital-to-analog conversion and the
speed
of sound in the transmission medium. Latency can be a critical performance
metric in professional audio including sound reinforcement systems, foldback systems, especially those using in-ear monitors, live
radio and
television. Excessive audio latency has the potential to degrade call
quality in
telecommunications applications. Low latency audio in computers
is important for interactivity.
Latency in
engineering is a time interval between the stimulation and
response, or, from a more general point of view, a time delay between the
cause and
the effect of some physical change in the system being observed.
Latency is physically a consequence of the limited velocity with which any
physical interaction can propagate. The magnitude of this velocity is
always less than or equal to the
speed of light. Therefore, every physical system will experience some
sort of latency, regardless of the nature of stimulation that it has been
exposed to. The precise definition of latency depends on the system being
observed and the nature of stimulation. In
communications,
the lower limit of latency is determined by the medium being used for
communications. In reliable two-way communication systems, latency limits
the maximum rate that information can be transmitted, as there is often a
limit on the amount of information that is "in-flight" at any one moment.
In the field of human–machine interaction, perceptible latency has a
strong effect on user satisfaction and usability.
Cell Phones.
Wave Impedance
of an electromagnetic wave is the ratio of the transverse components of
the electric and magnetic fields (the transverse components being those at
right angles to the direction of propagation). For a
transverse-electric-magnetic (TEM) plane wave traveling through a
homogeneous medium, the wave impedance is everywhere equal to the
intrinsic impedance of the medium. In particular, for a plane wave
travelling through empty space, the wave impedance is equal to the
impedance of free space. The symbol Z is used to represent it and it
is expressed in units of ohms. The symbol η (eta) may be used instead of Z
for wave impedance to avoid confusion with
electrical
impedance.
Extremely High Frequency is the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designation for the band
of radio frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum from 30 to 300
gigahertz (GHz). It lies between the super high frequency band, and the
far infrared band which is also referred to as the terahertz gap.
Radio
Waves in this band have wavelengths from ten to one millimetre, giving it
the name millimetre band or
millimetre wave,
sometimes abbreviated MMW or mmW.
Super High Frequency is the ITU designation for radio frequencies (RF)
in the range between 3 and 30 gigahertz (GHz). This band of frequencies is
also known as the centimetre band or centimetre wave as the wavelengths
range from one to ten centimetres.
Physicists Generate Terahertz Waves with Spin Current Flow. Terahertz
waves are often used in the checking of passengers and luggage at the
airport. Terahertz (THz) waves lie in the electromagnetic spectrum between
microwaves and
infrared radiation.
Since they are low in energy, there is no need for be concerned with their
impact on human.
Microwaves
-
Electromagnetic Radiation -
Alpha Theta Beta (brain
waves)
How
to Measure the Speed of Light with Marshmallows - Christmas Lectures with
Neil Johnson (youtube)
Hertz is the unit of frequency in the
International System
of Units (SI) and is defined as
one cycle per
second. As an SI unit,
Hz can be prefixed; commonly used multiples are
kHz (kilohertz, 10 to 3p Hz),
MHz
(megahertz, 10 to 6p Hz),
GHz (gigahertz,
10 to 9p Hz) and
THz (
Terahertz, 10 to 12power
Hz).
Cycle Per Second or CPS was a once-common English name for the unit of
frequency now known as the hertz.
Sine
Wave is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth
repetitive oscillation. It is named after the function sine, of which it
is the graph. It occurs often in pure and applied mathematics, as well as
physics, engineering, signal processing and many other fields.
Wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wave—the
distance over which the wave's shape repeats, and thus the inverse of the
spatial frequency.
Zenneck Wave is
an inhomogeneous or non-uniform electromagnetic plane wave incident at the
complex Brewster angle onto a planar or spherical boundary interface
between two homogeneous media having different dielectric constants. The
Zenneck wave propagates parallel to the interface and decays exponentially
vertical to it, a property known as evanescence. It exists under the
condition that the permittivity of one of the materials forming the
interface is negative, while the other one is positive, as for example the
interface between air and a lossy conducting medium such as the
terrestrial transmission line, below the plasma frequency. Arising from
original analysis by Arnold Sommerfeld and Jonathan Zenneck of the problem
of wave propagation over a lossy earth, it exists as an exact solution to
Maxwell's equations. (Zenneck surface wave or Sommerfeld-Zenneck surface
wave).
Surface
Wave surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the
interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along
the surface of liquids, such as ocean waves. Gravity waves can also occur
within liquids, at the interface between two fluids with different
densities. Elastic surface waves can travel along the surface of solids,
such as Rayleigh or Love waves. Electromagnetic waves can also propagate
as "surface waves" in that they can be guided along a refractive index
gradient or along an interface between two media having different
dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a ground wave is a guided
wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth.
Mechanical Wave
is a wave that is an oscillation of matter, and therefore transfers energy
through a medium. While waves can move over long distances, the movement
of the medium of transmission—the material—is limited. Therefore, the
oscillating material does not move far from its initial equilibrium
position. Mechanical waves transport energy. This energy propagates in the
same direction as the wave. Any kind of wave (mechanical or
electromagnetic) has a certain energy. Mechanical waves can be produced
only in media which possess elasticity and inertia. A mechanical wave
requires an initial energy input. Once this initial energy is added, the
wave travels through the medium until all its energy is transferred. In
contrast, electromagnetic waves require no medium, but can still travel
through one. One important property of mechanical waves is that their
amplitudes are measured in an unusual way, displacement divided by
(reduced) wavelength. When this gets comparable to unity, significant
nonlinear effects such as harmonic generation may occur, and, if large
enough, may result in chaotic effects. For example, waves on the surface
of a body of water break when this dimensionless amplitude exceeds 1,
resulting in a foam on the surface and turbulent mixing. Some of the most
common examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and
seismic waves. There are three types of mechanical waves: transverse
waves, longitudinal waves, and surface waves.
Transverse Wave
is a moving wave that consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular
(right angled) to the direction of energy transfer (or the propagation of
the wave). If a transverse wave is moving in the positive x-direction, its
oscillations are in up and down directions that lie in the y–z plane.
Light is an example of a transverse wave, while sound is a longitudinal
wave. A ripple in a pond and a wave on a string are easily visualized as
transverse waves.
Longitudinal
Wave are waves in which the displacement of the medium is in the same
direction as, or the opposite direction to, the direction of propagation
of the wave. Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called compressional
or compression waves, because they produce compression and rarefaction
when traveling through a medium, and pressure waves, because they produce
increases and decreases in pressure.
Seismic Wave are
waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result
of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and
large man-made explosions that give out low-frequency acoustic energy.
Many other natural and anthropogenic sources create low-amplitude waves
commonly referred to as ambient vibrations. Seismic waves are studied by
geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic wave fields are recorded by a
seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer. The propagation
velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium.
Velocity tends to increase with depth and ranges from approximately 2 to 8
km/s in the Earth's crust, up to 13 km/s in the deep mantle. Earthquakes
create distinct types of waves with different velocities; when reaching
seismic observatories, their different travel times help scientists to
locate the source of the hypocenter. In geophysics the refraction or
reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the structure of the
Earth's interior, and man-made vibrations are often generated to
investigate shallow, subsurface structures
Wind Wave are
surface waves that occur on the free surface of bodies of water (like
oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, canals, puddles or ponds). They result from
the wind blowing over an area of fluid surface. Waves in the oceans can
travel thousands of miles before reaching land. Wind waves on Earth range
in size from small ripples, to waves over 100 ft (30 m) high. When
directly generated and affected by local winds, a wind wave system is
called a wind sea. After the wind ceases to blow, wind waves are called
swells. More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are
not significantly affected by the local wind at that time. They have been
generated elsewhere or some time ago. Wind waves in the ocean are called
ocean surface waves. Wind waves have a certain amount of randomness:
subsequent waves differ in height, duration, and shape with limited
predictability. They can be described as a stochastic process, in
combination with the physics governing their generation, growth,
propagation, and decay—as well as governing the interdependence between
flow quantities such as: the water surface movements, flow velocities and
water pressure. The key statistics of wind waves (both seas and swells) in
evolving sea states can be predicted with
wind wave models. Although waves are usually considered in the water
seas of Earth, the hydrocarbon seas of Titan may also have wind-driven
waves.
Fundamental Frequency is defined as the lowest frequency of
a periodic waveform. In music, the fundamental is the
musical pitch of a
note that is perceived as the lowest partial present.
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties
of a
periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating
signal that typically
contains information to be transmitted.
Phase in relation to waves is the position of a point in time (an instant) on a
waveform cycle. A complete cycle is defined as the interval required for
the waveform to return to its arbitrary initial value. The graph to the
right shows how one cycle constitutes 360° of phase. The graph also shows
how phase is sometimes expressed in radians, where one radian of phase
equals approximately 57.3°.' Phase can also be an expression of relative
displacement between two corresponding features (for example, peaks or
zero crossings) of two waveforms having the same frequency. In sinusoidal
functions or in waves, "phase" has two different, but closely related,
meanings. One is the initial angle of a sinusoidal function at its origin
and is sometimes called phase offset or phase difference. Another usage is
the fraction of the wave cycle that has elapsed relative to the origin.
Phase Modulation is a modulation
Pattern
that encodes information as
variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. The phase of a
carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of modulation signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the
carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information
signal changes, the phase of the carrier changes correspondingly. The
analysis and the final result (modulated signal) are similar to those of
frequency modulation. Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting
radio waves and is an integral part of many digital transmission coding
schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies like Wi-Fi, GSM and
satellite television. Phase modulation is closely related to frequency
modulation (FM); it is often used as an intermediate step to achieve FM.
Mathematically both phase and frequency modulation can be considered a
special case of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). PM is used for
signal and waveform generation in digital synthesizers, such as the Yamaha
DX7 to implement FM synthesis. A related type of sound synthesis called
phase distortion is used in the Casio CZ synthesizers.
Vibration
is a
mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium
point. The word comes from Latin vibrationem ("shaking, brandishing"). The
oscillations may be periodic, such as the motion of a
pendulum—or random,
such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
PDF. Vibration is an oscillation of the parts of a fluid or an elastic solid whose
equilibrium has been disturbed, or of an
electromagnetic wave.
Vibration can also be a person's emotional state, the atmosphere of a
place, or the associations of an object, as communicated to and felt by
others. A distinctive
emotional aura
experienced instinctively.
Good
Vibrations: The Science of Sound (youtube)
Music for Plants -
Life of Plants -
Sonic Bloom (website)
Oscillation is the process of oscillating between states. A single complete execution of a
periodically repeated
phenomenon.
Oscillation is
the
repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a
central value (often a point of
equilibrium) or between two or more
different states. The term vibration is precisely used to describe
mechanical oscillation. Familiar examples of oscillation include a
swinging pendulum and
alternating current power.
PDF. Oscillation in physics is a regular
periodic variation
in value about a mean.
Synchronicity.
Entrainment Injection Locking is the process whereby two interacting
oscillating systems, which have different periods when they function
independently, assume a common period. The two oscillators may fall into
synchrony,
but other phase relationships are also possible. The system with the
greater frequency slows down, and the other speeds up.
Resonance is a
phenomenon in which a vibrating system or external
force drives another
system to oscillate with greater amplitude at a specific preferential
frequency.
Orbital Resonance.
Cycle is an interval during which a recurring sequence of events occurs.
Recur in repeating sequences.
A periodically repeated sequence of events. Cause to go through
a recurring sequence.
The unit of frequency; one hertz has a periodic interval of one
second. A single complete execution of a
periodically repeated
phenomenon.
Amplitude of a
periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period (such as
time or spatial period). There are various definitions of amplitude, which
are all functions of the magnitude of the difference between the
variable's extreme values. In older texts the phase is sometimes called the amplitude.
Patterns -
Rate -
Electromagnetic Spectrum.
Electronics Testing Equipment
Power Supply is an
electronic device that supplies
electric energy to an electrical load. The primary function of a power
supply is to
convert electric
current from a source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to
power the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as
electric power
converters. Some
power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while others
are built into the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter
include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics
devices. Other functions that power supplies may perform include limiting
the current drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current in
the event of an electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic
noise or voltage surges on the input from reaching the load, power-factor
correction, and storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the
event of a temporary interruption in the source power (uninterruptible
power supply).
Switched-Mode Power Supply is an electronic power supply that
incorporates a switching
regulator to
convert electrical power
efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a DC
or AC source (often mains power) to DC loads, such as a personal computer,
while converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear
power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually
switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends
very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes
wasted energy. Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power.
Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In
contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by
continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power
conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-mode power
supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and
lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and
weight. Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear
regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are
required. They are, however, more complicated; their switching currents
can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and
simple designs may have a poor power factor.
Electric Power Conversion is converting electric energy from one form
to another such as converting between AC and DC; or changing the voltage
or frequency; or some combination of these. A power converter is an
electrical or electro-mechanical device for converting electrical energy.
This could be as simple as a transformer to change the voltage of AC
power, but also includes far more complex systems. The term can also refer
to a class of electrical machinery that is used to convert one frequency
of alternating current into another frequency. Power conversion systems
often incorporate redundancy and voltage regulation. One way of
classifying power conversion systems is according to whether the input and
output are alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).
Inverter -
Voltage Regulator -
Transformers
-
Continuity Test
Oscilloscope is a type of
electronic test instrument
that allows you to
see voltage over time and make an observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as
a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time. Other
signals (such as
sound or
vibration) can be converted to voltages and
displayed.
Picotech.
Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that
combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter
can measure
voltage, current, and
resistance. Analog multimeters use a
microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital
multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric display, and may also show a
graphical bar representing the measured value. Digital multimeters are now
far more common due to their cost and precision, but analog multimeters
are still preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly
varying value.
Continuity.
How to Use a
Multimeter for Beginners - How to Measure Voltage, Resistance, Continuity
and Amps (youtube)
Connect the multimeter's probes to the main body
of the meter. Red goes in the positive receptacle, marked with "Volt."
Black goes in the negative or ground terminal, marked with "COM."
The Best Multimeter
Tutorial in The World (How to use & Experiments) (youtube).
How to Test an Outlet With a
Multi-Meter (youtube) - Black wire or Hot wire connects to gold screw
on plug (small slot). White wire or Neutral wire connects to silver screw
on plug. (tall slot). Copper wire or
ground wire connects to the green screw.
Wear
rubber soul shoes when working with wires.
Transducer
is a device that
converts one form of energy to another. Usually a
transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation,
measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are converted
to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light,
motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction.
Inverter.
Electronic Test Equipment is used to
create signals and
capture
responses from electronic devices under test or DUTs. In this way, the
proper operation of the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be
traced. Use of electronic test equipment is essential to any serious work
on electronics systems. Practical
electronics engineering and assembly
requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment
ranging from the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light
consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and
sophisticated such as automatic test equipment (ATE). ATE often includes
many of these instruments in real and simulated forms. Generally, more
advanced test gear is necessary when developing circuits and systems than
is needed when doing production testing or when troubleshooting existing
production units in the field.
Electronic Noise.
RF Probe is a
device which allows electronic test equipment to
measure
Radio Frequency
(RF) signal in an electronic circuit.
Science Tools and Equipment -
Engineering Knowledge -
LED's -
Light
Amprobe AT-7030 Advanced Wire Tracer Kit traces wires in
walls, ceilings, floors and corners.
Locates breakers and fuses, Pinpoints shorts and opens.
Galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument used for detecting and
indicating an electric current. A galvanometer works as an actuator, by
producing a rotary deflection of a pointer, in response to electric
current flowing through a coil in a constant magnetic field. Early
galvanometers were not calibrated, but improved devices were used as
measuring instruments, called ammeters, to measure the current flowing
through an electric circuit.
Potentiometer is an
instrument for measuring voltage
or 'potential difference' by comparison of an unknown voltage with a known
reference voltage. If a sensitive indicating instrument is used, very
little current is drawn from the source of the unknown voltage. Since the
reference voltage can be produced from an accurately calibrated voltage
divider, a potentiometer can provide high precision in measurement.
Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla was a Serbian-American inventor, electrical
engineer, mechanical engineer, physicist, and futurist who is best known
for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC)
electricity supply system. (10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943).
Nikola Tesla (youtube) -
Wireless Energy.
Tesla
Coil is an electrical
resonant transformer circuit designed by inventor Nikola Tesla in
1891. It is used to produce high-voltage, low-current, high frequency
alternating-current electricity. Tesla experimented with a number of
different configurations consisting of two, or sometimes three,
coupled
resonant electric circuits. Tesla used these circuits to conduct
innovative experiments in electrical lighting, phosphorescence, X-ray
generation, high frequency alternating current phenomena, electrotherapy,
and the
transmission of electrical energy without wires. Tesla coil
circuits were used commercially in sparkgap radio transmitters for
wireless telegraphy until the 1920s, and in medical equipment such as
electrotherapy and violet ray devices. Today, their main use is for
entertainment and educational displays, although small coils are still
used as leak detectors for high vacuum systems.
Build a Tesla Coil -
Tesla Tech.
Wardenclyffe Tower or the
Tesla Tower,
was an early experimental
wireless transmission
station designed and built by Nikola Tesla on Long Island in
1901–1902, located in the village of Shoreham, New York. Tesla intended to
transmit messages, telephony and even facsimile images across the Atlantic
to England and to ships at sea based on his theories of using the Earth to
conduct the signals. His decision to scale up the facility and implement
his ideas of wireless power transmission to better compete with Guglielmo
Marconi's radio-based telegraph system was met with refusal to fund the
changes by the project's primary backer, financier J. P. Morgan.
Additional investment could not be found, and the project was abandoned in
1906, never to become operational.
Wireless Power Transfer or electromagnetic power transfer is the
transmission of electrical energy without wires
as a physical link. In a wireless power transmission system, a transmitter
device, driven by electric power from a power source, generates a
time-varying electromagnetic field, which transmits power across space to
a receiver device, which extracts power from the field and supplies it to
an electrical load. The technology of wireless power transmission can
eliminate the use of the wires and batteries, thus increasing the
mobility, convenience, and safety of an electronic device for all users.
Wireless power transfer is useful to power electrical devices where
interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or are not possible.
Zenneck Wave
(wiki) -
Milford’s mysterious tower off I-35 in Texas.
The Lords
Of Lightning - Two men + two Tesla coils + special suits = ELECTRICITY
FIGHT! (youtube) -
Lords of Lightning (website)
Plasma Globe is a clear glass container filled with a mixture of
various
noble gases with
a high-voltage electrode in the center of the container. When voltage is
applied, a
plasma is formed
within the container. Plasma filaments extend from the inner electrode to
the outer glass insulator, giving the appearance of multiple constant
beams of colored light. The plasma lamp was invented by Nikola Tesla,
during his experimentation with high-frequency currents in an evacuated
glass tube for the purpose of studying high voltage phenomena. Tesla
called his invention an "inert gas discharge tube". The modern plasma lamp
design was subsequently developed by Bill Parker, a student at MIT.
Corona Discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the
ionization of a fluid such as
air surrounding a
conductor that is electrically
charged. Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high-voltage
systems unless care is taken to limit the electric field strength. A
corona will occur when the strength of the electric field (potential
gradient) around a conductor is high enough to form a conductive region,
but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing to nearby
objects. It is often seen as a bluish (or other color) glow in the air
adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages, and emits
light by the same property as a gas discharge lamp.
Glow Discharge
is a plasma formed by the passage of electric current through a gas. It is
often created by applying a voltage between two electrodes in a glass tube
containing a low-pressure gas. When the voltage exceeds a value called the
striking voltage, the gas ionization becomes self-sustaining, and the tube
glows with a colored light. The color depends on the gas used. Glow
discharges are used as a source of light in devices such as neon lights,
fluorescent lamps, and
plasma-screen televisions. Analyzing the light produced with spectroscopy
can reveal information about the atomic interactions in the gas, so glow
discharges are used in plasma physics and analytical chemistry. They are
also used in the surface treatment technique called sputtering.
What Happens If to
charge up a HUMAN with ONE MILLION VOLTS !?!! Will he get supernatural
powers? (youtube)
Help to
Republish Tesla's Secrets (Go Fund Me)
Man Solves
Tesla’s Secret To Amplifying Power By Nearly 5000% (youtube)
Jim Murray
(website)
Lenz's Law states that the current induced in a circuit due to a
change or a motion in a magnetic field is so directed as to oppose the
change in flux and to exert a mechanical force opposing the motion.
Faraday's Law of Induction is a basic law of
electromagnetism
predicting how a
magnetic field will interact with an
electric circuit to
produce an
Electromotive Force (EMF)—a phenomenon called electromagnetic
induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of
transformers,
inductors, and many types of electrical motors,
generators and
solenoids,
which is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix.
Electromagnetic Induction is the production of an
electromotive force (i.e., voltage) across an electrical
conductor in a changing magnetic field.
Dynaflux Alternator (website)
Induction
Generator is a type of alternating current (AC)
electrical generator that
uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction
generators operate by mechanically turning their rotors faster than synchronous speed.
Elliptical Electric Rotor
Rotor is a moving component of an electromagnetic system in the
electric motor,
electric
generator, or alternator. Its rotation is due to the interaction
between the windings and magnetic fields which produces a
torque around
the rotor's axis.
Rotating Magnetic Field is a magnetic field that has moving polarities
in which its opposite poles
rotate about a central point or axis. Ideally
the rotation changes direction at a constant angular rate. This is a key
principle in the operation of the alternating-current motor. Rotating
magnetic fields are often utilized for electromechanical applications such
as induction motors and electric generators. However, they are also used
in purely electrical applications such as induction regulators.
Electrical Reactance is the opposition of a circuit element to a
change in current or voltage, due to that element's inductance or
capacitance. A built-up electric field resists the change of voltage on
the element, while a
magnetic field resists the change of current. The
notion of reactance is similar to electrical resistance, but it differs in
several respects.
Gap-Power
Overunity Device
GAP Power Magnetic
Neutralization
Muammer Yildiz
Magnet Motor with Downloadable Patent Info (youtube)
John Christie Magnetic Generator – How To Generate 7 Kilowatts For Free
Using A Christie Generator. Magnetism can be converted into rotary
motion and then electricity is the result of
zero point technology.
Searl Effect Generator
The Searl Effect,
Free Energy Generator - Documentary (youtube - 28mins.)
Searl Solution -
Levity
DiskLaw of Squares
(symmetry)
Neodymium is a
chemical element with symbol Nd and atomic number 60. A yellow trivalent
metallic element of the rare earth group; occurs in monazite and
bastnasite in association with cerium and lanthanum and praseodymium.
Neodymium is classed as a rare earth, it is a fairly common element, no
rarer than cobalt, nickel, and copper, and is widely distributed in the
Earth's crust. Most of the world's commercial neodymium is mined in China.
Another important use of neodymium is as a component in the alloys used to
make high-strength
neodymium magnets—powerful permanent magnets. Neodymium is a metal is
ferromagnetic. Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 22, 8, 2.
When
electric current flows through a coil, it produces electromagnetic waves
that propagate in all directions. When the coil is placed inside a
cylinder it reflects the waves.
Rolls-Royce
| Permanent Magnet Technology (youtube)
The AZ-PM thruster is the
latest in a range of Rolls-Royce propulsion products using its
permanent magnet technology.
This technology is based on electric drive where the motor is in the form
of a ring round the propeller. The moving part of the ring is a rim around
the propeller blades which carries a series of strong permanent magnets.
The rotor, fitted within a series of magnets, turns within an outer ring
which form the stator. When current is supplied to the motor from the
variable frequency power supply the electromagnets are excited in a
particular sequence and the resulting magnetic fields interact with the
field from the rotor magnets creating a torque that turns the rotor and
its propeller blades. At the centre of the thruster the propeller blades
are joined to a hub, which has two functions; to carry the bearings taking
propeller thrust and provide radial location of the rotor, and to improve
the hydro-dynamic efficiency of the thruster. Loads are transferred to the
stator through struts. Both rotor and stator are sealed against water
ingress and operate fully submerged. Rolls-Royce PM technology is
flexible, and is currently applied in this integrated propeller drive form
to tunnel thrusters (TT-PM) and azimuth thrusters (AZ-PM). Other versions
in which the PM rotor is arranged to turn an output shaft provide a high
torque, low speed, drive for winches. Among the advantages of this PM
thruster technology are high efficiency (at nominal speed) over the entire
speed range, leading to low thermal losses and eliminating the need for
separate cooling systems of the submerged motor. Thrusters are compact and
robust, and require less space within the hull. They are simple, with far
fewer components than geared thrusters and are also quieter, with reduced
structure and airborne noise.
Learn more about Permanent Magnet Thrusters.
Magnet Electric Generator (image)
Azimuth Thruster is a configuration of marine propellers placed in
pods that can be rotated to any horizontal angle (azimuth), making a
rudder unnecessary. These give ships better maneuverability than a fixed
propeller and rudder system.
Zero Point Energy
Zero-Point Energy is the lowest
possible energy that a
quantum
mechanical physical system may have; it is the energy of its ground state.
Binding Energy -
Chemical Bonds -
Atoms form
Molecules to form a Low
Energy State.
Wave Function.
Ground State of a
quantum-mechanical system is its
lowest-energy state; the
energy of
the ground state is known as the zero-point energy of the system. An
excited state is any state with energy greater than the ground state. In
quantum field theory, the ground state is usually called the
vacuum state
or the vacuum. If more than one ground state exists, they are said to be
degenerate. Many systems have degenerate ground states. Degeneracy occurs
whenever there exists a unitary operator that acts non-trivially on a
ground state and commutes with the Hamiltonian of the system. According to
the third law of
thermodynamics, a system at absolute zero temperature
exists in its ground state; thus, its
entropy is determined by the
degeneracy of the ground state. Many systems, such as a perfect
crystal
lattice, have a unique ground state and therefore have zero entropy at
absolute zero. It is also possible for the highest excited state to have
absolute zero temperature for systems that exhibit negative temperature.
Time Crystal.
Hamiltonian in quantum mechanics is an operator corresponding to the
sum of the
kinetic energies
plus the
potential energies for
all the
particles in the system (this addition is the total energy of the
system in most cases under analysis).
Energy-Plus-House produces more energy from
renewable energy sources,
over the course of a year, than it imports from external sources. This is
achieved using a combination of
microgeneration technology and low-energy
building techniques, such as: passive solar building design, insulation
and careful site selection and placement. A reduction of modern
conveniences can also contribute to energy savings, however many
energy-plus houses are almost indistinguishable from a traditional home,
preferring instead to use highly energy-efficient appliances, fixtures,
etc., throughout the house.
Free
Energy (Tesla) (youtube) -
Energy-Frequency-Vibration - 3,6,9
Race to Zero Point (youtube)
Free is not just related
to
money or to any monetary
price that you pay. Free is
also related to the
time and
effort that you
put in when
compared to the
value and
benefit that you
receive.
Dollars and cents is nonsense, money is just a
vague label. You need to
measure reality. You need
facts, not
fiction. You need
science, not
fantasy. This is another reason why education needs to improve. People
like free and people like
freedom, but they can't
prove
or
explain what free
is or what freedom is. People are not measuring, people are just
pretending and
guessing, which leaves most people living in a
fantasy world with no
clear path to
understanding reality.
Kardashev
Scale is a method of measuring a civilization's level of
technological advancement, based
on the amount of energy a civilization is able to use for
communication. The scale has
three designated categories:
Type I
civilization—also called a planetary civilization—can use and store
all of the energy which reaches its planet from its parent star. Type I
technological level of a civilization can harness all the
Energy that falls on a planet from
its parent
star (for Earth-Sun
system, this value is close to 7x1017 watts), which is more than five
orders of magnitude higher than the amount presently attained on earth
(0.72), with energy consumption at ≈4×1019 erg/sec (4 × 1012 watts). The
astronomer Guillermo A. Lemarchand stated this as a level near
contemporary terrestrial civilization with an energy capability equivalent
to the solar insolation on Earth, between 1016 and 1017 watts.
Renewable Energy -
Energy Harvesting.
Type II civilization—also called a stellar
civilization—can harness the total energy of its planet's parent star (the
most popular hypothetical concept being the Dyson sphere—a device which
would encompass the entire star and transfer its energy to the planet(s)).
Type III civilization—also called a
galactic civilization—can control energy on the scale of its entire host
galaxy. The scale is hypothetical, and regards energy consumption on a
cosmic scale. It was proposed in 1964 by the Soviet astronomer Nikolai
Kardashev. Various extensions of the scale have since been proposed,
including a wider range of power levels (types 0, IV and V) and the use of
metrics other than pure power.
Vacuum Energy (1.4 volts /
90 milliamps)
Casimir
Effect -
Quantized Energy -
Electrons
Resonant Inductive Coupling is the phenomenon that the coupling is
enhanced when the secondary side of the loosely coupled coil resonates.
The most basic resonant inductive coupling consists of one drive coil on
the primary side and one resonance circuit on the secondary side.
Zero Point Batteries
Battery that Never
Runs Out! The Mysteries of Zero Point Energy (youtube)
A "Forever" Energy
Cell From the Zero Point (youtube)
Quantum-Power.
Quotas Principle Pre Celestial Energy - Double Quantum Dot Resonance.
Virtual Particles in Electromagnetism (Marcus Reid)
How to Build
Crystal Power Cells - Long Duration Power (youtube)
Bio-Batteries -
Perpetual
Motion
Mind over Matter, because
Matter Matters.